1 The Nature of Altruism
Some Definitions
Is altruism a motivation, a momentary state of mind that aims at accomplishing the good of others, or a disposition to care for others in a benevolent way, pointing to a more lasting character trait? Deļ¬nitions abound and, sometimes, contradict each other. If we want to show that real altruism exists and help it spread throughout society, it is necesĀsary to clarify the meaning of this term.
The word āaltruism,ā derived from the Latin alter, āother,ā was used for the ļ¬rst time in the nineteenth century by Auguste Comte, one of the fathers of sociology and the founder of positivism. Altruism, accordĀing to Comte, implies āthe elimination of selļ¬sh desire and of egocenĀtrism, as well as leading a life devoted to the well-being of others.ā1
The American philosopher Thomas Nagel explains that altruism is āa willingness to act in consideration of the interests of the other perĀson, without the need of ulterior motive.ā2 It is a rational determinaĀtion to act stemming from āthe direct inļ¬uence of one personās interest on the actions of another, simply because in itself the interest of the former provides the latter with a reason to act.ā 3
Other thinkers, conļ¬dent in the potential for benevolence present in humans, go further and, like the American philosopher Stephen Post, deļ¬ne altruistic love as āunselļ¬sh delight in the well-being of others, and engagement in acts of care and service on their behalf. Unlimited love extends this love to all others without exception, in an enduring and constant way.ā4 The agapeĀÆ of Christianity is an uncondiĀtional love for other human beings, while altruistic love and compasĀsion in Buddhism, maitri and karuna, extend to all sentient beings, humans and non-humans.
Some authors emphasize putting intentions into practice, while others think it is motivation that deļ¬nes altruism. The psychologist Daniel Batson, who has devoted his career to the study of altruism, points out that āaltruism is a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing anotherās welfare.ā5 He clearly distinguishes altruism as ultimate goal (my explicit aim is to accomplish othersā welfare) from altruism as means (I accomplish othersā welfare with a view to fulļ¬llĀing my own well-being). In his eyes, for a motivation to be altruistic, the well-being of others must constitute a goal in itself.6
Action Alone Does Not Define Altruism
In her book entitled The Heart of Altruism, Kristen Monroe, professor of political science and philosophy at the University of Irvine at CaliĀfornia, suggests we reserve the term āaltruismā for actions carried out for the well-being of others at the price of some risk for ourselves, without expecting anything in return. According to her, good intenĀtions are indispensable for altruism, but they are not enough. One must act, and action must have a precise goal, that of contributing to the well-being of another.7
Monroe does acknowledge, however, that motivations for an action count more than their results.8 So it seems preferable to us not to restrict the use of the term altruism to external behavior, since actions do not in themselves allow us to know with certainty the motivation that inspired them. Just as the appearance of undesirable and unforeĀseen consequences does not call into question the altruistic nature of an action meant for the good of the other, so a hindrance to taking action, which is beyond the control of the one who wants to act, does not at all diminish the altruistic nature of his motivation.
Moreover, for Monroe, an action cannot be considered altruistic if it does not bear a risk and has no ācost,ā however potential, for the one who performs it. In our opinion, an altruistic individual will indeed be ready to take risks to accomplish good for others, but the simple fact of taking risks for someone else is neither necessary nor sufļ¬cient to qualify as altruistic behavior. One can imagine an individual putĀting himself in danger to help someone with the idea of gaining his trust and drawing personal advantages from it sufļ¬ciently desirable to justify the perils encountered. Whatās more, some people agree to court danger for purely selļ¬sh reasons ā to seek glory, for instance, by carĀrying out a dangerous exploit. On the other hand, a behavior can be sincerely devoted to the good of the other, without bearing any notable risk whatever. The one who, moved by benevolence, gives away part of his wealth or devotes years to a charity organization helping people in need does not necessarily take a risk; but his behavior deserves to be qualiļ¬ed as altruistic, in our sense of it.
It Is Motivation That Colors Our Actions
Our motivations, whether they are benevolent, malevolent or neutral, color our actions. One cannot distinguish altruistic behavior from selļ¬sh behavior, a lie meant to do good from another uttered to harm, by the sole appearance of actions. If a mother suddenly pushes her child to the side of the street to prevent it from being run over by a car, her action is violent only in appearance. If someone approaches you with a big smile and showers you with compliments with the sole aim of swindling you, his conduct may seem benevolent, but his intentions are obviously selļ¬sh.
Keeping in mind our limited ability to control outer events or anticipate the turn they will take in the long run, we cannot qualify an act as either altruistic or selļ¬sh on the basis of the simple observation of its immediate consequences. Giving drugs or a glass of alcohol to someone who is undergoing a detox cure, with the excuse that he is suffering from abstention symptoms, will no doubt provide him with much-appreciated temporary relief, but such an action will do him no good in the long run.
On the other hand, in every circumstance, it is possible for us to examine our motivations attentively and honestly, and to do our best to determine if they are selļ¬sh or altruistic. More often than not, we neglect to do so. It is also easy to misperceive our true motive. This is why Buddhist teachings emphasize the need to look again and again into the mirror of oneās mind to check our motivations.
The Importance of Valuing the Otherās ...