Altruism

The Power of Compassion to Change Yourself and the World

Matthieu Ricard

• Publisher: Atlantic Books
• Year: 2015
• eBook ISBN:
  9780857897008
• Topic: Personal Development
• Subtopic: Mental Health & Wellbeing

The concern for the well-being of others could be the saving grace of the 21st century. Matthieu Ricard's Altruism, an erudite, brilliantly ranging synthesis of philosophy, psychology and ages old wisdom, is a radical call to kindness, which has the potential as a new global movement to answer the biggest problems of our time: the economy in the short term, life satisfaction in the mid-term, and the environment in the long term. As the faultlines of inequality and nationalism leave us ever more divided, Ricard challenges us to be better people - and in the process, make the world a better place.

1 The Nature of Altruism

Some Definitions

Is altruism a motivation, a momentary state of mind that aims at accomplishing the good of others, or a disposition to care for others in a benevolent way, pointing to a more lasting character trait? Definitions abound and, sometimes, contradict each other. If we want to show that real altruism exists and help it spread throughout society, it is neces­sary to clarify the meaning of this term.

The word “altruism,” derived from the Latin alter, “other,” was used for the first time in the nineteenth century by Auguste Comte, one of the fathers of sociology and the founder of positivism. Altruism, accord­ing to Comte, implies “the elimination of selfish desire and of egocen­trism, as well as leading a life devoted to the well-being of others.”¹

The American philosopher Thomas Nagel explains that altruism is “a willingness to act in consideration of the interests of the other per­son, without the need of ulterior motive.”² It is a rational determina­tion to act stemming from “the direct influence of one person’s interest on the actions of another, simply because in itself the interest of the former provides the latter with a reason to act.” ³

Other thinkers, confident in the potential for benevolence present in humans, go further and, like the American philosopher Stephen Post, define altruistic love as “unselfish delight in the well-being of others, and engagement in acts of care and service on their behalf. Unlimited love extends this love to all others without exception, in an enduring and constant way.”⁴ The agape¯ of Christianity is an uncondi­tional love for other human beings, while altruistic love and compas­sion in Buddhism, maitri and karuna, extend to all sentient beings, humans and non-humans.

Some authors emphasize putting intentions into practice, while others think it is motivation that defines altruism. The psychologist Daniel Batson, who has devoted his career to the study of altruism, points out that “altruism is a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another’s welfare.”⁵ He clearly distinguishes altruism as ultimate goal (my explicit aim is to accomplish others’ welfare) from altruism as means (I accomplish others’ welfare with a view to fulfill­ing my own well-being). In his eyes, for a motivation to be altruistic, the well-being of others must constitute a goal in itself.⁶

Among the other modes of altruism, goodness corresponds to a way of being that translates into actions as soon as circumstances allow; benevolence, from the Latin benevole, “to want the well-being [of the other],” is a favorable disposition toward others, accompanied by a desire to act upon that desire. Solicitude consists of caring in a lasting way and with vigilance about another’s fate: concerned about his situation, one is anxious to provide for his needs, promote his well-being, and remedy his suffering. Dedication consists of selflessly placing oneself in the service of persons or a cause beneficial to society. Kindness is a form of caring, warm-hearted consideration that is manifested in the way we behave toward others. Fraternity stems from the feeling of belonging to the great human family whose every representative is perceived as a brother or sister whose fate matters to us; fraternity also evokes the ideas of harmony, cohesion, and union. The feeling of solidarity with a more or less extensive group of people is born when all must confront together common challenges and obstacles. By extension, this feeling can be experienced for the most destitute, or for those who are affected by a catastrophe; it is the community of fate that unites us.

Action Alone Does Not Define Altruism

In her book entitled The Heart of Altruism, Kristen Monroe, professor of political science and philosophy at the University of Irvine at Cali­fornia, suggests we reserve the term “altruism” for actions carried out for the well-being of others at the price of some risk for ourselves, without expecting anything in return. According to her, good inten­tions are indispensable for altruism, but they are not enough. One must act, and action must have a precise goal, that of contributing to the well-being of another.⁷

Monroe does acknowledge, however, that motivations for an action count more than their results.⁸ So it seems preferable to us not to restrict the use of the term altruism to external behavior, since actions do not in themselves allow us to know with certainty the motivation that inspired them. Just as the appearance of undesirable and unfore­seen consequences does not call into question the altruistic nature of an action meant for the good of the other, so a hindrance to taking action, which is beyond the control of the one who wants to act, does not at all diminish the altruistic nature of his motivation.

Moreover, for Monroe, an action cannot be considered altruistic if it does not bear a risk and has no “cost,” however potential, for the one who performs it. In our opinion, an altruistic individual will indeed be ready to take risks to accomplish good for others, but the simple fact of taking risks for someone else is neither necessary nor sufficient to qualify as altruistic behavior. One can imagine an individual put­ting himself in danger to help someone with the idea of gaining his trust and drawing personal advantages from it sufficiently desirable to justify the perils encountered. What’s more, some people agree to court danger for purely selfish reasons — to seek glory, for instance, by car­rying out a dangerous exploit. On the other hand, a behavior can be sincerely devoted to the good of the other, without bearing any notable risk whatever. The one who, moved by benevolence, gives away part of his wealth or devotes years to a charity organization helping people in need does not necessarily take a risk; but his behavior deserves to be qualified as altruistic, in our sense of it.

It Is Motivation That Colors Our Actions

Our motivations, whether they are benevolent, malevolent or neutral, color our actions. One cannot distinguish altruistic behavior from selfish behavior, a lie meant to do good from another uttered to harm, by the sole appearance of actions. If a mother suddenly pushes her child to the side of the street to prevent it from being run over by a car, her action is violent only in appearance. If someone approaches you with a big smile and showers you with compliments with the sole aim of swindling you, his conduct may seem benevolent, but his intentions are obviously selfish.

Keeping in mind our limited ability to control outer events or anticipate the turn they will take in the long run, we cannot qualify an act as either altruistic or selfish on the basis of the simple observation of its immediate consequences. Giving drugs or a glass of alcohol to someone who is undergoing a detox cure, with the excuse that he is suffering from abstention symptoms, will no doubt provide him with much-appreciated temporary relief, but such an action will do him no good in the long run.

On the other hand, in every circumstance, it is possible for us to examine our motivations attentively and honestly, and to do our best to determine if they are selfish or altruistic. More often than not, we neglect to do so. It is also easy to misperceive our true motive. This is why Buddhist teachings emphasize the need to look again and again into the mirror of one’s mind to check our motivations.

In his book Altruism in Humans, Daniel Batson offers a set of criteria by which we can qualify our motivations as altruistic.⁹

Altruism requires a motivation: an instinctive reflex or automatic behavior cannot be qualified as either altruistic or selfish, whatever the beneficial or harmful consequences may be.

The difference between altruism and selfishness is qualitative: it is the quality of our motivation and not its intensity that determines its altruistic nature.

Various motivations, altruistic and selfish, can coexist in our minds, and create a motivational conflict when we simultaneously consider our interests and the other’s.

Moreover, we sometimes act in ways that benefit others for reasons that are neither altruistic nor selfish, especially out of a sense of duty or to respect the law.

Carrying thought into action may depend on various factors that are beyond our control. This alone does not fundamentally change the altruistic or selfish nature of our motivations.

Altruism does not require a personal sacrifice: it can even lead to personal benefits, provided that those benefits do not constitute the ultimate goal of our behavior, but are only secondary consequences of it.

In essence, altruism does indeed reside in the motivation that animates one’s behavior. Altruism can be regarded as authentic so long as the desire for the other’s welfare constitutes our ultimate goal, even if our motivation has not yet been transformed into actions.

By contrast, a selfish person considers others as instruments in the service of his own interests. He does not hesitate to neglect, or even to sacrifice, the good of the other when that turns out to be useful to reach his ends.

The Importance of Valuing the Other’s ...

Table of contents

• Also by Matthieu Ricard
• Altruism
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1 The Nature of Altruism
• 2 Extending Altruism
• 3 What Is Empathy?
• 4 From Empathy to Compassion in a Neuroscience Laboratory
• 5 Love, Supreme Emotion
• 6 The Accomplishment of a Twofold Benefit, Our Own and Others’
• 7 Self-Interested Altruism and Generalized Reciprocity
• 8 Selfless Altruism
• 9 The Banality of Good
• 10 Altruistic Heroism
• 11 Unconditional Altruism
• 12 Beyond Imitations, True Altruism: An Experimental Investigation
• 13 The Philosophical Arguments Against Universal Selfishness
• 14 Altruism in Theories of Evolution
• 15 Maternal Love, Foundation for Extended Altruism?
• 16 The Evolution of Cultures
• 17 Altruistic Behavior Among Animals
• 18 Altruism Among Children
• 19 Prosocial Behavior
• 20 Can We Change?
• 21 Training the Mind: What the Cognitive Sciences Have to Say
• 22 How to Cultivate Altruism: Meditations on Altruistic Love, Compassion, Joy, and Impartiality
• 23 Egocentrism and Crystallization of the Ego
• 24 The Spread of Individualism and Narcissism
• 25 The Champions of Selfishness
• 26 Having Hatred or Compassion for Yourself
• 27 The Shortfall of Empathy
• 28 At the Origin of Violence: Devaluing the Other
• 29 The Natural Repugnance to Kill
• 30 Dehumanizing the Other: Massacres and Genocides
• 31 Has War Always Existed?
• 32 The Decline of Violence
• 33 The Instrumentalization of Animals: A Moral Aberration
• 34 Backfire: Effects of the Meat Industry on Poverty, Environment, and Health
• 35 Institutionalized Selfishness
• 36 The Virtues of Cooperation
• 37 An Enlightened Education
• 38 Fighting Inequality
• 39 Toward a Caring Economy
• 40 Voluntary, Joyous Simplicity
• 41 Altruism for the Sake of Future Generations
• 42 Sustainable Harmony
• 43 Local Commitment, Global Responsibility
• Conclusion: Daring Altruism
• Acknowledgments
• Karuna-Shechen: Altruism in Action
• Notes
• Sources for Figures
• Select Bibliography
• About the Author