Government, business, and civil society in our contemporary network society are increasingly faced with complex societal problems. Attempts to deal with these problems may result in enduring processes of policymaking, policy implementation, and public service delivery that are hard to manage. Many examples can be given of such complex governance processes:
These examples have in common that they involve difficult issues that require in-depth knowledge on their nature and possible solutions; they also, however, involve many actors, and this may result in a chaotic process with unexpected and unwanted outcomes, or in a process that becomes stuck in enduring and intense debates and conflicts that are not easily resolved. To say it differently: these problems are characterized by a high degree of wickedness (Rittel and Webber 1973; Radford 1977; Mason and Mitroff 1981). Thus, the wicked nature of these problems is not only caused by the lack of information or knowledge or the technologically advanced nature of the issue; but probably even more by the presence of various actors, with diverging or even conflicting interests and perceptions.
A further feature of these issues is that they cut across the traditional jurisdictions of organizations, divisions of responsibilities between layers of government (local, regional, national, supranational), and the boundaries between the public, private, and societal domains.
Box 1.1 The debates on hydraulic fracturing as wicked problems
The shale gas revolution that occurred in the USA and Canada from the 1990s onwards has resulted in initiatives in many countries to introduce hydraulic fracturing (also known as fracking). It has also led to conflicts among gas and oil industries proposing projects and influencing governments to adopt favourable policies, and local protestors and environmental groups that fear the environmental impact and require local and national governments to come up with strict regulations or even a ban on these practices. These debates are going on in various countries in governance networks at state and federal governmental levels over policies to be adapted or changed, and at the local and regional level regarding specific projects.
Shale gas is obtained by drilling and creating cracks in deep-rock formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine are released. In the course of time, new techniques have been introduced, such as horizon drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing implies the injection of a high pressure fluid, usually chemicals, and sand suspended in water, into a wellbore, in order to create cracks. Applying these techniques on a massive scale (high volume fracturing) has increased the commercial success of this way of exploiting fossil energy sources, to such a level that, in the USA, a shale gas revolution has been claimed. In 2012, shale gas made up 39% of US national gas production.
The technique is highly controversial though. Proponents extol the economic benefits in terms of increased employment, competitive advantages for chemical industries, and geopolitical advantages (such as the USA becoming independent from the oil producing countries). Opponents express concerns about contamination of ground water, depletion of fresh water, emission of methane, triggering of earthquakes, noise and surface pollution, and falling property prices. Research on these topics is far from conclusive, and concerns have been raised about studies funded either by pro-fracturing foundations and corporations or by environmental groups, bringing the independence of studies in doubt. Researchers and media in the US have reported difficulty in doing studies and reporting on the results because of industry and governmental pressure.
Whereas the attitude of governments towards fracturing in for instance the USA and China is positive, some countries have restricted it, and others have banned it temporarily, awaiting results of investigations, or altogether, as France did in 2011. The European Union is drafting regulations for risk management in industries applying hydraulic fracturing (Carr et al. 2011; Heikkila et al. 2014; Wikipedia 2014).
Box 1.2 Dealing with multiple problem clients in youth care as a wicked problem
Public services are rarely isolated. Quality is only achieved in connection with other services. When a youngster is referred to youth care services, there may be a background of problems at school, at home, with the law, and with psychiatric conditions, all intertwined in a way that is impossible to disentangle. If they are to achieve any result, the different care providers need to cooperate. Integration and connectivity, in other words, are important preconditions. The various existing public service delivery institutions (for instance schools, youth care, neighbourhood workers, police, justice departments) traditionally focus on their core activities and have difficulty dealing with these transboundary problems. In various countries, centres are established for youth care, as front offices for these clients, to enhance collaboration. They may be regarded as an attempt to achieve network governance. These centres seek to improve cooperation between professionals and their institutions, and thereby make youth care more accessible and better aligned to demand. This has benefits for youngsters with more than one problem. The envisioned cooperation between care providers, however, has not been automatically successful as a result of these centres. Authorities, often local authorities, often lack the expertise to know who should coordinate what, with whom, and when. The youth care centres struggle with their dual role â they are supposed to provide guidance in the care chain as a whole, as well as cooperate as one partner with other partners. This makes it more difficult for them to allow other care providers sufficient freedom to act and gain their trust. Moreover, the various care providers are not always on the same team as it were: they may also be competitors when it comes to scarce resources (Lemaire and Provan 2009; Koppenjan 2012).
Governments, businesses, and civil society are often unable to tackle these issues by themselves because they lack the resources or problem-solving capacities to do so. The complexity of these issues and interdependencies between actors result in intensive interactions between actors. As a result, governance networks emerge: networks of enduring patterns of social relations between actors involved in dealing with a problem, policy, or public service (Marin and Mayntz 1991; Thompson et al. 1991; Marsh and Rhodes 1992; Kickert et al. 1997).
As a consequence, traditional methods of dealing with problems, policymaking, and public service delivery â which often hold complex issues to be an intellectual design question, and approach them by giving research and expertise a central role and assigning them to specialized units within hierarchical organized bureaucracies â no longer suffice. The wicked problems that confront governments, private companies, and societal groups in the current complex society require a different, new approach (Koppenjan and Klijn 2004; Coyne 2005; Head 2008; Weber and Khademian 2008; Hoppe 2011). They require a shift from a more traditional top-down way of problem solving to a more horizontal cooperative approach, which is often referred to as the shift from government to governance (Pierre and Peters 2000; SĂžrensen and Torfing 2007; Osborne 2010; Klijn and Koppenjan 2012).