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1 Identity in sport
Reflections on welfare, performance and consultancy practice within a Christian worldview
Nick J. Watson
Introduction
Sports philosopher Scott Kretchmar (1998) has argued that we need to think more philosophically about the meaning of sport participation and competition. More specifically, Kretchmar suggests that studying sport without some sort of metaphysical (i.e., religious) basis is questionable. He sees athletes as âmeaning-seeking, story-telling creaturesâ, who can encounter real drama, experience excellence and self-discovery in healthy sporting contests. In turn, a small number of sport psychologists have challenged the current dominance within their discipline of positivistic research and cognitive-behavioral consultancy techniques, advocating the need for more holistic, philosophical, spiritual and religious approaches (see, for example, Martens, 1987; Corlett, 1996; Czech, Wrisberg, Fisher, Thompson and Hayes, 2004; Nesti, 2004; Watson and Nesti, 2005; Lynn, Pargament and Krane, 2010; Sarkar, Hill and Parker, 2014; Mosley, Frierson, Cheng and Aoyagi, 2015). These approaches emphasize the importance of the overall development of the athlete and their welfare needs, above performance enhancement and success and are at the core of a Christian understanding of identity within the context of sport psychology consultancy.1
To date, the dominant schools of mainstream 20th century psychology (the parent discipline of sport psychology) â experimental, behaviorist, cognitivist and clinical â have adopted mainly secular theories of human identity based on scientific and positivist philosophy. Recent shifts toward spiritual and religious concepts, such as love, creativity, faith and wisdom, within the disciplines of sport philosophy and sport psychology, positive psychology (e.g., Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Kretchmar and White, 2018) and in the works of Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow and Victor Frankl, are encouraging, and have made a significant contribution to my own thinking in terms of understanding the complexities of athletic identity. This said, the foundational source of identity (ontologically and epistemologically) throughout this body of work is, as Frankl (1986: xii) states, âa human phenomenon rather than divineâ, and thus puts the self at the centre of the framework of meaning (humanism and naturalism), rather than God (supernaturalism). In this chapter, I argue that this is diametrically opposed to a Christian theological perspective of identity as described in the Bible, in which humans are called to deny themselves and to live in Christ (Matt. 16:24â27). This is not as burdensome as it may sound, but rather something that, C.S Lewis argues, actually leads humans to freedom of heart, peace and becoming âmore truly themselvesâ. As Lewis goes on to note, âit is when I turn to Christ, when I give up myself to His personality, that I first begin to have a personality of my ownâ (cited in Warren, 2002: 80).
In the hope of contributing to past psychological (Brewer, Van Raalte and Petitpas, 2000), psychiatric, clinical (Beisser, 1967; Begel and Burton, 2000; Gardner and Moore, 2006), sociological (Roderick, 2006; Harris and Parker, 2009) and pedagogical (Cassidy, Jones and Potrac, 2008; Macdonald and Kirk, 1999) work on athletic identity (and related research on self-worth and dispositional neurotic perfectionism in sport that is based on a secular and humanistic worldview; see, for example, Hill [2016]), this approach provides a significantly different understanding of personhood and how we understand ourselves and others in and through competitive sport. Its core premise is that human identity, that is, feeling, thinking, attitudes and behaviors, should be grounded in, and flow from, the heart of a loving Father God. As Paul states in Acts 17:28a, when addressing the Athenian philosophers, âfor in him we live and move and have our beingâ.
The chapter also addresses longitudinal sports ethics research that has suggested that athletes in Christian and secular American schools show little, if any, difference in moral reasoning and that Christian athletes have a tendency to compartmentalize their faith and exclude it from competitive sport (Beller, Stoll, Burwell and Cole, 1996; Stoll and Beller, 2008). Why is this so? Can Christian athletes simply follow the strict moral code of the Bible and feel, think and act in the heat of competition and in relationships, in a Christ-like manner? I will argue that they cannot. Alongside biblical knowledge and habitual practice of virtues over time (as described in Alistair McIntyreâs work that is rooted in the theology of Aquinas and, thus, Aristotle), the state of the âheartâ of the believer, their disposition â the depth of relationship and intimacy with God through Jesus Christ â is the source of all right and wrong, feeling, thinking and acting.
My anthropological start point is predicated on the biblical proposition that all humans are made in the image of God â imago Dei (Gen. 1:27) and comprise soul, body and spirit (1 Thessalonians 5:23). This division of self is useful in analyzing identity in sport. However, throughout this chapter, I contend the Platonic-Cartesian mind-body dualism entrenched in Western thought by referring to the soul, body and spirit holistically as the heart, a Hebrew and Pauline perspective (Pannenberg, 1985; Jeeves, 1997). This view maintains that humans are thoroughly integrated beings, with different facets.
Consistent with this idea that the Christian faith comprises a personal and intimate relationship with God situated in the âheartâ of the human believer, rather than a dry rule-governed legalistic and judgmental religion, it is necessary to provide some explanation of what we mean by âheartâ within this context. In a little known book, Biblical Psychology (1962/1936: 97â105), Oswald Chambers provides some clarity on the spiritual nature of the human heart, which he calls the âradiator of the personal lifeâ â the source of human identity and moral reasoning:
The use of the Bible term âheartâ is best understood by simply saying âmeâ. The heart is not merely the seat of the affections it is the centre of everything. The heart is the central altar, and the body is the outer court. What we offer on the altar of the heart will tell ultimately through the extremities of the body ⌠the centre from which Godâs working and the devilâs working, the centre from which everything works which moulds the human mechanism⌠. Our Lord undertakes to fill the whole region of the heart with light and holiness⌠(2 Corinthians 4:6)⌠. Do I realize that I need it done? Or do I think I can realize myself? That is the great phrase today, and it is growing in popularity â âI must realize myself.â
âI must realize myselfâ? Chambersâ reflections from the early 20th century are, I would argue, prophetic for the age in which we live. The cultural ethos of âself-realizationâ, or what has been called âselfismâ by psychologist Paul Vitz (1994), is so encultured in the West that I agree with those who have argued that pride of the heart âis now synonymous with virtueâ in the institutions of media, sport and religion (Higgs and Braswell, 2004: 372). To be sure, this view of identity and self-worth that has no objective foundation, as it is relative to each person, is so deeply woven into the fabric of society; that it is, as the 19th century writer Kierkegaard (1989/1849) states, the worst form of despair, a âfictitious healthâ. Why? Because it is, as Kierkegaard called it, the disposition of the âautomatic cultural manâ an unconscious denial of the reality of life built on self, instead of the source of our being, a Holy loving God. This is what Ernest Becker (1973: 82), in his magnificent presentation of Kierkegaardâs psychoanalysis (a Freudian term), calls the âsocial hero systemâ, wherein modern humans âsuccessfully ⌠play ⌠the standardized hero-gameâ of their age to protect themselves from the existential angst of the realities of the human condition â absurdity and meaninglessness, without belief in a supernatural God.
As articulated in the writings of St. Augustine, Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, Oswald Chambers, G.K. Chesterton and C.S. Lewis â and, of course, the fountain of all their musings, the Bible â the insidiousness of pride and narcissism in the Westâs cultural value system has resulted in widespread cultural and social fragmentation. The titles of notable books, such as The Culture of Narcissism: Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (Lasch, 1980), Psychology as Religion: The Cult of Self-Worship (Vitz, 1994) and Ernest Beckerâs award-winning The Denial of Death(1973), also accurately convey our current situation. Nonetheless, liberal-humanist and post-modern voices that dominate academic sports studies (e.g., sociology, philosophy, psychology, pedagogy) and other disciplines, at times seem oblivious to the evidence all around them that the 19th and 20th century utopian âmyths of progressâ have been unable to prevent, and have often contributed to, what David Blankenhorn (1995) and others in theology (e.g., Nouwen, 1979; Vitz, 1999) have called a Fatherless Generation â a âfatherless heartâ, by default, breeds identity/welfare issues that sport psychologists commonly face in their work with athletes (Watson, 2016).
After providing a rationale for the need for this investigation of identity in sport from a Christian standpoint, my first task is to analyze the conceptual nature of sports competition and its role in understanding âathletic identityâ, which has been defined as âthe degree to which an individual identifies with the athlete roleâ (Brewer, Van Raalte and Linder, 1993: 237). This will allow for a theological and psychological analysis of identity in sport, focusing on pride, humility and idolatry. Pride and humility are the two states of heart that I see as fundamental in understanding both positive and negative aspects of identity in sport. I close with a series of concluding remarks regarding future research and approaches to consultancy. By outlining a Christian understanding of psychology and identity â a core principle of all psychologies the chapter provides, the foundational arguments upon which other contributions sit and upon which this volume is based.
Identity and competition in sport
In his book Winning: The Psychology of Competition (1980: 4), Stuart Walker makes a number of points about athletic competition, which are important when examining issues of identity in sport:
Most competitors think of themselves as being primarily motivated to develop, demonstrate, and enjoy competence. Many, however, are also concerned with the demonstration of power, courage, and aggressiveness. They use competition to overcome feelings of dependence, helplessness, and loss of individuality. Others are more concerned with being approved, appreciated, and admired. They use competition to overcome feelings of being separated, abandoned, and unloved. Competition permits the demonstration of individual significance, which gratifies desire for both assertiveness and approval. The key word is âdemonstrationâ. Competitors perform in public; they assert themselves in the presence of others â of their competitors at the very least.
Walkerâs psychological thesis holds some weight, however as Newman (1989) notes, Walker overstates his point as to how competitions are primarily activated; i.e., winning is the only goal of the athlete. This thesis is far too simplistic, and I would agree with Simon (1991: 33), who argues that competition in sport is ethically defensible and that the âmeeting of the demands athletes place upon their talents often involves beauty, courage, dedication, and passionâ. Nonetheless, the intense emotion and passion often present in the delicately balanced dialectic of competitive sport, Hyland (1988: 177) suggests, also carries the risk that âsuch intensity will devolve into alienation and violenceâ, to the detriment of athlete welfare. This is closely tied to athletesâ (and coachesâ, parentsâ, etc.) need for recognition, love and their demonstrations of power and significance, which are arguably a mainstay of modern competitive sport. A psychoanalytical perspective of these needs, Kohn (1992: 106) suggests, equates as follows: winning = coachâs approval = parental acceptance (in child/youth sport) = acceptance of self (self-worth).
In extending Kohnâs social-psychological analysis to include the spiritual, this unhealthy âdisordering of our affectionsâ, as Church father St Augustine (354â430c.) put it, may lead to perversion and corruption of the activity in which âthe athlete may delude himself into thinking that his own quest for wealth and fame, or even a championship, will make him happyâ (Hamilton, 2003: 7). In other words, for athletes and coaches of this mindset, it would seem that sport is life and to lose, or to be unable to play for whatever the reason, can have catastrophic consequences for the emotional and psychological balance of an individual; that is, their sense of identity and welfare. Stories of retired athletes sliding into alcoholism and suffering from serious relationship problems (e.g., divorce) illustrate the kinds of identity issues that may arise when sport, the âlife projectâ, is lost (see Roderick, 2006). Indeed, the history of elite sport is littered with the âcomebacksâ of professional athletes who in an anxious attempt to extend or resurrect their sporting identities fall foul of âunhealthy obsessionâ.
Of course, these fears of failure and loss are often hidden behind psychological defenses; what Christian psychologists have aptly called, âfig-leavesâ, such as a mask of competence, outward success and/or a sense of âhaving it all togetherâ, the very ethos of the Western world (Johnson and Burroughs, 2000). This is most often an unconscious response and stems from foundational low self-worth and ultimately a nihilistic worldview. Evidence of this existential angst in both elite and youth sport performers has been demonstrated by the findings of welfare-focused research concerning dispositional neurotic perfectionism (Hall, 2008) and âfear of failureâ (Sager, Lavallee and Spray, 2009), psychiatric writings on the mental health of athletes (Begel, 1992; Burton, 2000), and theological (Hamilton, 2002) and philosophical (McNamee, 2008) reflections on shame in sport, with athletes suffering from feelings of narcissism, guilt and negative mood, and resultant decrements in performance.
For an athlete in competitive sports, the feelings associated with team relocation, athletic retirement (Brewer et al., 2000; Lavallee and Wylleman, 2000; Kerr and Da...
