Social Welfare Policies and Programmes in South Asia

Channaveer R. M., Rajendra Baikady, Haruhiko Sakaguchi, Cheng Sheng-Li, Channaveer R. M., Rajendra Baikady, Haruhiko Sakaguchi, Cheng Sheng-Li

• Publisher: Routledge India
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9781000690606
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Política y relaciones internacionales
• Subtopic: Política

This book examines the social welfare policies and programmes devised to address different societal issues and concerns across the South Asian countries. It focuses on the design and delivery of social welfare policies related to women, children, the elderly and groups living below poverty level. It brings a wide array of themes to the fore – empowerment of vulnerable populations, globalization and inclusive development, intervention in Northeast India, employment of elderly teachers in Sri Lanka, regulations in prisons, ageing South Asia and elderly care, social exclusion and urban poor, girl child education in India, child protection in Bangladesh and women panchayat leaders – to provide an evidence-based understanding of social policy formulation, implementation and monitoring in South Asia.

Comprehensive and topical, this volume will be useful to scholars and researchers of political studies, sociology, development studies and public policy, and also to practitioners and those in the development sector, NGOs and think tanks.

Part I
The demography of vulnerability and social welfare in South Asia

A paradigm shift

Rajendra Baikady, Haruhiko Sakaguchi, Cheng Sheng-Li and Channaveer R. M.

South Asian countries are typically marked by large populations, high poverty, low literacy and poor indicators of human development. South Asia accommodates more than one-fifth of the world’s population with the largest number of poor compared to other regions of the world. The Human Development Report ranks most South Asian countries in the medium human development category while only Sri Lanka is placed in the high human development category with a human development value of 0.770 (Human Development Report, 2017). On the human development index, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan are ranked at 130, 136, 150 and 139 respectively (Human Development Report, 2017). Agriculture is the main source of livelihood for almost 70 per cent of the region’s population who live in the rural areas. Excessive dependency on agriculture and low productivity make the region the second poorest in the world with 38.6 per cent of the population living below the poverty line. Further, over one-fifth of the population do not consume the standard 2,200 calories a day, and more than 50 per cent of children under five are underweight (UNIGCME, 2018). Along with this, South Asian society has strong gender inequality in every aspect of life. Even though South Asia is home to one-quarter of the world’s female population, the number of women representing the workforce in the region is less than 14 per cent.

The region accounts for the second highest child mortality rate in the world, with over 7 per cent of children dying before their fifth birthday (UNIGCME, 2018). Among the South Asian countries, Afghanistan accounts for the highest, followed by Pakistan. In Pakistan, the infant mortality rate, as recorded by the 2006–7 Demographic and Health Survey, accounts for 78 deaths per 1,000 births, and the under-five mortality rate accounts for 94 (NIPS & Macro International, 2008). The India National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), conducted in 2005–2006, recorded the infant mortality and under-five mortality rate as 57 and 74 respectively (International Institute for Population Sciences [IIPS] & Macro International, 2007). In Nepal, these rates were recorded as 46 and 54, respectively (MoHP, New ERA, & ICF Macro, 2011), and in Bangladesh, 52 and 65, respectively (NIPORT, Mitra and Associates, & Macro International, 2009). Further, the South Asian region is second in maternal mortality rates. In 2005, it was 490 per 100,000. This is highest after Sub-Saharan Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia alone accounted for 87 per cent of global maternal deaths (WHO, 2014). According to the World Health Organization, 70 per cent or more maternal deaths are the result of haemorrhage, infection, unsafe abortion, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and obstructed labour (WHO, 2014). It is also important to note that in the South Asian region, less than half of all births are attended by skilled health-care personnel – the lowest rate in the world (WHO, 2014). Situations such as poverty, lack of universal health-care coverage, inadequate and unaffordable health care, unequal access to resources, the low status of women and illiteracy are the underlying causes for these maternal deaths (WHO, 2014). Because of these socio-cultural and economic conditions, maternal death rates are much higher in the developing countries compared to the developed countries (WHO, 2010, 2014).

All over the world, child malnutrition damages both children and the nation (de Onis, Frongillo, & Blossner, 2000). Malnutrition is leading to a significant number of deaths of children worldwide (Caulifield, de Onis, Blossner, & Black, 2004); hence, malnutrition should be a policy priority in the developing countries (Caulifield et al., 2004). In the South Asian region, the level of childhood malnutrition is exceptionally high and ranges between 45 and 48 per cent in India, Bangladesh and Nepal and is 38 per cent in Pakistan and 30 per cent in Sri Lanka (Khan & Bano, 2007). Across the South Asian region, the underlying causes of child malnutrition are poverty, illiteracy, low levels of education and lack of access to health care (Khan & Bano, 2007). Poor infant and young child feeding is one of the most important immediate causes of child malnutrition in South Asian countries (Global nutrition report 2016; Bhutta & Salam, 2012). The Sri Lankan Demography and Health Survey shows that 21.6 per cent of children below the age of five years were underweight, a further 15 per cent of children were wasting and 18 per cent of children were stunted (Department of Census and Statistics in collaboration with the Ministry of Health, 2008). In India, the number of malnourished children accounts for 48 per cent of the total child population (Arnold, Parasuraman, Arokiasamy, & Kothari, 2009), and the issue is more crucial in nature. The prevalence of underweight children in India is highest compared to the other 40 countries and slightly higher than the prevalence in Bangladesh and Nepal (Arnold et al., 2009). Unfortunately, the prevalence of underweight children in India is twice as high as the average prevalence in Sub-Saharan African countries (Arnold et al., 2009). Barnwal (unpublished) and Gollin, Hansen, and Wingender (2018) reported that High Yielding Verity (HYV) adoption in agriculture is helping to reduce infant mortality in the developing countries. Brainerd and Menon (2014) noted that child mortality was adversely affected by water contamination with agro chemicals. Further, Bhalotra (2010) and Baird, Friedman, and Schady (2011) found a negative correlation between the GDP and infant mortality in India and other developing countries. Maccini and Yang (2009) found that early rainfall had negative effects on adult health outcomes.

Vulnerability – a South Asian perspective

Women in South Asian societies are discriminated against on various grounds. Despite representing more than half of the South Asian population, women’s situations in many South Asian countries are not good. Gendered social structures and strong patriarchal mindsets are resulting in women earning less than 10 per cent of the world’s income and owning 1 per cent of property (Agarwal, 2001). Kumari (2014) noted that by tradition women are treated as disadvantaged and are paid less for their work compared to the men. Further, women in South Asian societies were not allowed to enjoy the status and standards of the other population (Kumari, 2014). Balve (2015) argued that by analyzing the criminal activities against women, it can be well established that women are marginalized and vulnerable. The growth trend and the structure of South Asian societies also contribute to the marginalization of women (UNRISD, 2005). South Asia witnesses the extreme form of gender discrimination centred on male farming and classic patriarchy (IDRC, 2004).

The majority of South Asian countries do not treat women as a productive workforce. Most of the time, work performed by women is placed as informal rather than considering it as labour. As a result, the overall region witnessed a decline in women’s share of labour from 33 per cent to 29 per cent from 1980 to 2004 (ILO, 2004; UNIFEM, 2005). However, women in the region are increasingly working on combinations of domestic unpaid and paid work (Unni, Jhabwala, & Sinha, 2006; ILO, 2004). Further research also found that in Sri Lanka and India, women occupy the lower end in the technology and software sector with low earnings and fewer leadership opportunities (Mitter & Sen, 2000). Mukhopadhyay (2003) noted in many cases women employees were exposed to high levels of violence and stress in the export-related industries. However, some other researchers found that women working in the garment factories in Bangladesh developed a sense of confidence, self-esteem and significance within the household (Kabeer & Mahmud, 2004). Senapaty (2001) reported the food- and work-related insecurity of women in the region increased with shifts in agricultural practices.

In order to improve women’s situation and provide a more conducive environment, South Asian countries have introduced many policies and legislative measures (Agarwal, 2001). India introduced five-year plans focusing on women empowerment (Statistics on Women in India, 2007). Bhutan, a matrilineal-structured society, allows women to inherit land as assured by law (UNCT, 2000). In addition to this, in many South Asian countries, women are working in the science and technology field, and their contributions have promoted empowerment opportunities among them (Lokeshwari, Kittur, Kumar, & Mohan, 2013). Kumari (2014) found that a large number of women, working in various sectors, found their job based on their education, training and knowledge. However, Siddiqui (2007) argued that the dominant group in the society always deprived the marginalized group, and that’s how the education of the marginalized is affected. Further, there is a strong educational discrimination and deprivation in South Asian societies, based on gender, caste and colour (Siddiqui, 2012). In order to respond to these needs, Hazarika (2011) called for drastic changes in policy to focus on female education in the region.

In India, despite legal reform, practices such as Sati, dowry, wife burning, harassment and violence against women are prevalent (Sharm a, 2002). Gupta (2003) also noted that South Asian women were given secondary positions in the socio-economic, cultural and political affairs of society.

People with disabilities are another vulnerable group in the society. The World Health Organization estimates around 15 per cent of the disabled population lives in developing countries, while there are around 650 million people with disabilities in the world. The number of disabled people in low and middle income countries account for around 80 per cent with rapid growth (WHO, 2011). In the majority of the South Asian countries, disability is considered primarily a family concern, and only very occasionally do people with disabilities get state and NGO attention. As noted by Banskota (2015), in Nepal, disability is primarily a family concern and does not get public attention.

New paradigms in social welfare – transition from MDGs to SDGs

Through the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), South Asian countries have achieved commendable improvements in poverty reduction, gender equality in primary education, reducing tuberculosis, increasing forest cover and protected areas, reducing carbon dioxide emissions and increasing access to safe drinking water. Challenges remain in achieving reduction in maternal and child mortality, improved sanitation and reduction in the proportion of underweight children. However, the achievements of these areas are different in different countries across the region. Sustainable Development Goals are expected to carry forward the unfinished MDG agenda further. The first seven goals in the Sustainable Development Goals focus on the MDGs, whereas goals 8, 9, 10 and 16 are built on the cross-cutting issues, such as economic growth, job creation, industrialization, inequality and peace and justice. Goals 11 to 15 focus on ecological sustainability and related issues. The last goal (SDG 17) focuses on building a global partnership, which is the core of development in the globalized world.

Highlighted by the policy experts, Sustainable Development Goals comprise 17 goals with 169 targets. There are seven key areas identified as priorities for integrating SDGs into the South Asian region and achieving development in the areas which have not performed well in the MDGS. Accordingly, the SDGs target poverty alleviation (SDG-1), a sustainable job market, rapid economic growth through industrialization (SDG-9) and economic growth (SDG-8). However, achievements in these areas are important for supporting other goals as well. The SDGs are expected to generate a more competitive and productive job market for the youth in the South Asian region. Despite its fastest growing trend, the region has failed to cater to the employment needs of the youth, and 80 per cent of the workforce in the region depends on the informal sector. Th...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Notes on contributors
• Foreword
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction: the policies and programmes for social welfare: a South Asian perspective
• PART I The demography of vulnerability and social welfare in South Asia: a paradigm shift
• PART II Poverty and marginalization in South Asian society
• PART III Post-globalization development and welfare challenges in South Asian society
• Conclusion: Inequality and social exclusion in diverse contexts: issues, challenges, and concerns
• Index