50 Years of US Study Abroad Students

Japan as the Gateway to Asia and Beyond

Sarah R. Asada

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN:
  9781138609914
• eBook ISBN:
  9780429880209
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Since the 1960s, Japan has been a historical leading study abroad destination for US undergraduate students. This book explores the long-term impacts of study abroad through a lens of knowledge diplomacy and the cultivation of individuals with understanding of the host country and world through transformative international experiences. Based on extensive original survey data and interviews with alumni over nearly 50 years of the Japan Study Program, the book provides a historical perspective on the personal impacts of study abroad on academic, professional, and personal development. The author further explores knowledge diplomacy seen as the creation of an in-depth understanding of the host country, familiarity of the host region, and awakened consciousness of the world through subsequent life experiences.

Recipient of the 2020 Best Book Award from the Comparative and International Education Society (CIES) Study Abroad and International Students Special Interest Group.

Part 1

Study abroad's personal and social roles in the 21st century

1 Study abroad as a high-impact educational experience in the internationalization of higher education

Introduction

“The modern university is at the center of an international knowledge system that encompasses technology, communications, and culture” (Altbach, 1998, p. 347). In our global world, the internationalization of higher education is no longer seen as an option. Rather, it is viewed as a necessity on all levels for all actors to operate in an increasingly interconnected global world where intercultural competence and international understanding are required to succeed. The act of students crossing national borders in pursuit of knowledge is often noted in the internationalization of higher education. This chapter conceptualizes the internationalization of higher education, globalization, and international student mobility to provide a theoretical grounding of the book. Next, the examination of study abroad in the United States reveals its role as a high-impact educational experience throughout its shifting national rationales over the last 100 years. Finally, the international student mobility approaches in Japan and the United States suggest the potential of study abroad to promote intercultural competencies and international understanding for a global world.

Internationalization of higher education

The internationalization of higher education is not a new phenomenon with its presence evident throughout the history of higher education (Altbach & Teichler, 2001). The term internationalization started gaining widespread notary in the 1980s (Knight, 2008). In the 21st century, our global world presents new demands and challenges ensuing the proliferation of the internationalization of higher education as the world and its economies, people, and cultures become more connected than ever before. Accordingly, national and institutional policies emphasizing international and intercultural dimensions in higher education have materialized worldwide (e.g., Altbach, 2004; Huang, 2003; Kim & Choi, 2010; Knight, 2004; Mok, 2007). Despite its long history and growing importance, there is not a consensus on the definition of internationalization. To date, the phenomenon of internationalization is often referred to with a variety of terms, such as international education, transnational education, international studies, and globalization of higher education. However, these terms do not capture the comprehensive nature of internationalization.

The most widely accepted definition of internationalization is proposed by Knight (2004): “Internationalization at the national/sector/institutional levels is the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of higher education at the institutional and national levels” (p. 21). In 2015, de Wit and Hunter proposed an updated definition building from Knight's definition: “the intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of postsecondary education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution to society” (p. 3). In de Wit and Hunter's redefinition of internationalization, there is a focus on internationalization being inclusive of all and focusing not only on economic rationales but also on social and cultural rationales. Moreover, it suggests that it is not ad hoc but rather an intentional phenomenon. However, it assumes internationalization as beneficial for all and therefore negates the possible unintended negative consequences.

There is not a consensus on a precise definition of internationalization. Nonetheless, it is important to have a working definition and framework to guide research and discussion about the phenomena of internationalization (de Wit, 2002). This book uses Knight's widely accepted definition because it is intentionally neutral and does not include the rationales, benefits, outcomes, actors, activities, and stakeholders, which may change over time. Every country has a unique history, culture, and language that influence its higher education system. Knight's intentional neutrality and openness of the definition allow it to be used as base for comparative purposes while giving flexibility to recognize the local context.

In the framework of internationalization of higher education proposed by Knight, there are two pillars in the internationalization of higher education: at-home and abroad. These two pillars are not independent of each other; rather internationalization at-home and abroad are interdependent and linked to each other. The “abroad” pillar emphasizes on the mobility of people, programs, providers, and/or projects across national borders. Meanwhile, the “at-home” pillar does not involve physical movement and brings attention to internationalization that occurs on campus or internally within the institutional structure. Harari (1992) describes the at-home internationalization process as campus internationalization through faculty and infrastructural efforts. This book focuses on the “abroad” aspect of internationalization by examining the long-term impacts of study abroad programs on its participants.

The driving forces of internationalization have changed over time. de Wit (2002) identifies four rationales for internationalization: social/cultural, political, economic, and academic. Knight (2008) expands upon these by proposing rationales of emerging importance on the national level and institutional level. The national level includes development of human resources, strategic alliances, income generation, nation/institution building, and social and cultural development. The institutional level includes international branding and profile, quality enhancement, international standards, income generation, student and staff development, and knowledge production. There is one particular rationale noted in both de Wit's and Knight's proposed categories: social and cultural development and mutual understanding in the national level and student development in the institutional level. These rationales share the same encompassing idea of producing a society of intercultural competent individuals with international understanding through the medium of higher education. Whether it is a bottom-up process where the institutions take the strong initiative or a top-down process where the national-level international policy is taking the lead, these rationales play a role in the process of internationalization.

Globalization permeates modern society and its landscapes. Although globalization is “widely recognized as one of the most powerful forces for change in higher education” (Taylor, 2010, p. 83) and “the most fundamental challenge faced by the university in its long history (Scott, 1999, p. 35), there is no universal definition of the term. Giddens is one of the first scholars to examine globalization. He describes globalization as the “intensification of worldwide social relations which link distinct locations in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa” (Giddens, 1990, p. 64). Held, McGrew, Goldblatt, and Perraton expand upon the conceptualization of globalization and describe it as “the widening, deepening and speeding up of world interconnectedness” (1999, p. 2). This emphasis on the increasing pace and transnational dimensions of the globalization phenomena is included in Held and McGrew's later definition of globalization:

A process (or a set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions – assessed in terms of their intensity, velocity, and impact – generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power (Held & McGrew, 2003, p. 68)

Knight (2008) illustrates the relationship of internationalization and globalization as a highly interdependent relationship with their relationship described as catalyst, reactor, and agent. de Wit (2008, p. 3) states that “higher education is increasingly influenced by globalization but also is becoming a more vigorous actor in globalization.” Countries and institutions respond to globalization through the internationalization of higher education. The relationship between higher education and globalization is both passive and active. Van Damme (2001) proposes four key tendencies of globalization and higher education: “the creation of new and tremendously important demands and exigencies toward universities as knowledge centers; an increase in the demand for higher education worldwide; an erosion of national regulatory and policy frameworks; and the emerging borderless higher education market” (pp. 2–4).

The dynamics of international student mobility

Perhaps one of the most visible aspects of the internationalization of higher education is international student mobility. The concept of students crossing borders in pursuit of knowledge can be traced back to the beginnings of higher education (Hoffa, 2007; Lucas, 2006). However, in recent times, the scale of international student mobility we are currently witnessing is unprecedented. According to UNESCO (2009), there have been three waves of growth of international student mobility from 1975 to 2004, with a 30% growth between 1975 and 1980, a 34% growth between 1989 and 1994, and a 41% growth between 1999 and 2004. Even in the last decade, the number of internationally mobile students has almost doubled from 2.4 million in 2004 to 4.6 million in 2015, a 91% increase. Meanwhile, the number is projected to climb as high as 8 million by 2025 (Guruz, 2011). While in the past the English-speaking countries have been top destinations for international mobile students, Asia is becoming increasingly popular as a destination (Kuroda, Sugimura, Kitamura, & Asada, 2018; UNESCO, 2013).

While the term international student mobility refers to “students who have crossed a national or territorial border for the purpose of education and are now enrolled outside their country of origin” according to the UNESCO Glossary, international student mobility takes many forms. How individuals partake in international student mobility can range from individuals completing degrees outside of the country of origin (degree mobility) to participating on one year or one-semester study abroad programs and transferring credits to their home institution for graduation (credit mobility). There are also a growing number of options for students to engage with education abroad in innovative ways outside of the classroom, such as service learning and volunteer-based experiences, where they may not necessary receive academic credit for their international educational experience (voluntary mobility).

The dynamics of each type of mobility differ. Degree mobility connotes individuals who enroll directly into higher education institutions outside of their home country for the purpose of obtaining a degree. Meanwhile, credit mobility primarily manifests in two ways for the purpose of shorter-term studies to transfer credit to graduate from th...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of abbreviations
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction
• PART 1 Study abroad's personal and social roles in the 21st century
• PART 2 50 years of US study abroad students in Japan
• PART 3 Study abroad in the age of global competition and cooperation
• Conclusion
• Index