Origin of Confucianism
Confucianism, by and large, refers to the philosophy that comes from the teachings of Confucius in China. Confucius lived in the period of the Warring States, at a time of anarchy and civil war. In contrast to other philosophers who stress the importance of the rule of law (e.g. Han Feizi) or universal love (e.g. Mozi), Confucius turns to morality for solutions to the chaotic situation, advocating that rule by force be replaced with rule by virtue. While Confucius characterizes the hierarchical structure of traditional Chinese society as natural, he believes that a harmonious society can be built if everyone meets the moral obligations of their social role through conformity to the fundamental principles of humanity, especially benevolence (ren ä») and ritual (li 犟). Indeed, for Confucius, all human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through constant self-cultivation and continuous social interaction.
The spread of Confucianism
Although Confucianism has its origins in China, its influence has now spread. Historical documents concerning the spread of Confucianism indicate that Confucian doctrines and practices were introduced to other East Asian countries, including Korea and Japan, as early as the Western Han Dynasty (206 BCâ9 AD). At first, local scholars in these countries simply copied the Chinese Confucian system. Subsequently, however, some brilliant scholars emerged, reinterpreting the Confucian teachings in the light of their knowledge, understanding, and experience (Yao, 2000). Two such brilliant scholars in Korea, possibly the first country apart from China where Confucianism exerted a wide-ranging influence, were Yi Hwang (pen-name: Tâoegye) and Yi I (pen-name: Yulgok). Both Tâoegye and Yulgok accept Cheng-Zhuâs interpretations of Confucianism that focus on the study of Neo-Confucian concepts, especially principle (li ç) and material force (qi æ°Ł); yet they have different understandings of these concepts in Zhu Xiâs theories, contributing to lively debates, further elaboration, and new syntheses. By contrast, in Japan, another country strongly influenced by Confucianism, eminent scholars were primarily interested in applying Confucian ideas, values, and principles to political and social life rather than engaging in philosophical debates about Neo-Confucian concepts. For instance, by prioritizing the virtue of loyalty (zhong ćż ) over the virtue of filial piety (xiao ć) in Neo-Confucian teachings, Hayashi Razan successfully utilized Confucianism as a tool to unify Japan and justify the system of bakufu (the government); and by invoking the doctrines of such classical Confucians as Confucius and Mencius, Yamaga SokĆ initiated a systematic exposition of bushido (the way of the warrior) as a code of conduct for a samurai (warrior):
The business of the samurai is to reflect on his own station in life, to give loyal service to his master if he has one, to strengthen his fidelity in associations with friends, and, with due consideration of his own position, to devote himself to duty above all. ⊠outwardly he stands in physical readiness for any call to service, and inwardly he strives to fulfill the Way of the lord and subject, friend and friend, parent and child, older and younger brother, and husband and wife.
De Bary, Gluck, and Tiedemann (2005, p. 193)
In this way, Chinese Confucianism was introduced to other East Asian countries, where it combined with local traditions and culture to acquire new manifestations.
With regard to the introduction of Confucianism to the West, this is commonly attributed to Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit who arrived in China in the early 1580s. Ricci and his fellow Jesuits studied Confucian classics as part of their missionary strategy, using Confucian concepts to explain Christianity. Through the translation of Confucian works into Latin, Ricci brought Confucian studies to Europe and played a key role in sparking an academic movement, sometimes referred to as âsinophilismâ, among Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Leibniz. For Voltaire, who had challenged the universality of the Christian religion, Europe should be defined in terms of reason rather than religion. Viewing China as a perfectly rational civilization that had been able to do without religion, Voltaire believed it was Confucian ethics that thoroughly regulated the moral standards of China (Cheng, 2014). In a similar vein, in his first mention of Chinese philosophy in Novissima Sinica (The Latest News From China), Leibniz expressed his admiration for the culture of China in that
all laws of the Chinese, in contrast to those of other peoples, are directed to attaining public peace ⊠and creating social order ⊠[, showing a Chinese superiority in] practical philosophy; that is, in the precepts of ethics and politics adapted to the present life and to the use of mortals.
Li and Poser (2006, p. 26)
Since then, Christian missionaries have continued to play a crucial role in introducing Confucianism to the West and promoting the interpretation of Confucian teachings within a Christian or European framework.
Influence of Confucianism
Today, many scholars, whether from East Asia or the West, are actively involved in Confucian studies, introducing, examining, and developing the Confucian tradition. These scholars have endeavoured to establish a strong connection between the past and the present and a productive interaction between the Chinese tradition and other great traditions of the world. By way of illustration, consider Tu Wei-mingâs three-period theory of the development of Confucianism (Tu, 1996). According to this theory, Confucianism has so far gone through three periods: the first period of âClassical and Han Confucianismâ that represents the foundation of the tradition by Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi and the establishment of Confucianism as state orthodoxy by Dong Zhongshu from the Spring and Autumn period (770â476 BC) to the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25â220 AD); the second period of âNeo-Confucianismâ, marked by the creation of a more rationalist and secular form of Confucianism in response to the superstitious and mystical elements of the then influential Buddhism and Taoism, as well as the spread of Confucianism to other parts of East Asia, from the Song Dynasty (960â1279) to the end of the 19th century; and the third period of âModern Confucianismâ, characterized by the re-evaluation and re-interpretation of the tradition in the light of Western traditions, which was initiated in the May Fourth Movement in 1919 and remains ongoing. For Tu, the possibility of further third-period development of Confucianism hinges on whether Confucianism can make innovative responses to t...
