Events, Places and Societies

Nicholas Wise, John Harris, Nicholas Wise, John Harris

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9781138482470
• eBook ISBN: 9781351057578
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Hospitality, Travel & Tourism Industry
• Index: Business

Events can be synonymous with a particular place, helping shape and promote a location. Given the rise of the global events industry, this book uncovers how events impact upon places and societies, looking at a range of different events and geographical scales. Geographers are concerned with how notions of space and place impact people, communities and identity, and events have played a central role in how places are perceived, consumed and even contested.

This book will discuss international event cases to frame knowledge around the increased demands, pressures and complexities that globalisation, transnationalism, regeneration and competitiveness has put on events, places and societies. Integrating discussions of theory and practice, this book will explore the range of conceptual perspectives linked to how geographers and sociologists understand events and the role events play in contemporary times. This involves recognizing histories and planning strategies, the purpose of bidding for an event or the local meanings that have emerged and changed in the place. This helps us analyse how events have the potential to redefine place identities.

This international edited collection will appeal to academics across disciplines such as geography, planning and sociology, as well as students on events management and events studies courses.

1 Introduction to place

Velvet Nelson

Introduction

In a review article, Lewicka (2011) asks the question: How important are places for people today? She highlights the ways in which the world has changed since ‘classical’ studies such as those by Tuan (1975) and Relph (1976), citing factors such as increased mobility, globalization, and homogenization. Yet, concern about places is not new. In Relph’s (1976) Place and Placelessness, he describes non-places as having few characteristics that situate them in their location, distinguish them from other places, or endow them with any significant meanings. In answer to her own question, though, Lewicka (2011, p. 209) writes, it is ‘important to point to an intriguing paradox that despite the growing number of the so called non-places, not only have places not lost their meaning but their importance in the contemporary world actually may have grown’.

Geographers have long been interested in issues of place. In fact, place is considered fundamental to the discipline of geography. However, the study of place is very much an interdisciplinary endeavor. Place is more than just a ‘thing’; it is a way of seeing, knowing, and understanding the world (Cresswell, 2015). As such, place provides an appropriate framework for this discussion of a range of topics associated with events. The subsequent chapters in this book engage with place in different ways, as it is assessed, contested, and consumed differently around the world and differs based on disciplinary perspective. In recent years, we have witnessed tremendous growth in events around the world, from community festivals to mega-events, with diverse themes and purposes (see Page & Connell, 2012; Wise & Harris, 2017). These events occur in places, transform them, and reflect them. Events are used to promote places, and the interactions that happen during events create new, and perhaps contested, meanings of place.

This chapter offers an introduction to the concept of place and considers some of the approaches to place that inform our understanding of events. Topics include the creation and contestation of places, place names, sense of place, place attachment, place disruption, and place identity from social science perspectives, as well as place promotion, branding, and reputation management. This brief discussion is by no means comprehensive and could include many other concepts and perspectives, but offers some conceptual guidance to provide a base for the range of cases included in this book.

Making and experiencing place

Place is an undeniably powerful concept. It is such a widely used term that we often rely on a common-sense understanding of it. However, as a topic of academic inquiry, scholars from a variety of disciplines using diverse approaches have often presented competing ideas about place (Vuolteenaho & Berg, 2009). In addition, there has been overlap between concepts (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2001) and confusion over terminology. These issues led one author to describe the literature on place as incoherent (Devine-Wright, 2009). Thus, before considering the relationship between place and events, it is worth taking a closer look at the concept.

Places have a location and a physical setting. Indeed, the meanings of places may be tied to the physical features of a location (Campelo, 2015), and some authors argue that place attachment is often based on physical features (Stedman, 2003). However, the concept of place goes well beyond these components (Relph, 1976). Places are socially constructed. Simply stated by Campelo (2015, p. 58), ‘places are brought alive by people’. People transform spaces into places. They create places, name them, and give them meaning. They contest them, experience them, and represent them to others. According to Pine and Gilmore’s 4E model (1998), people attend events to experience places and performances for the purpose of entertainment, education, escapism or aesthetics. This conceptualization and framework on the experience economy has been adopted in a number of studies in the sport and events literature (e.g. Perić et al., 2017; Westwood et al., 2018; Ziakas & Boukas, 2014).

The place-making processes occurring around the world are never ending (Cresswell, 2015). Places are produced both physically and symbolically. This production is a contested and ideological process (Cohen, 1995). As such, a place can be examined in terms of its physical setting or its setting for social activity as well as its ideological construction. For example, Anderson (1991) examines the construction of Chinatown in the case of Vancouver, Canada. Such a place is characterized by specific physical structures (e.g. stores, pagodas), which create a setting for certain social interactions, but it is also ideologically constructed as a place of difference (Cresswell, 2015). Cohen (1995) finds that attention is typically given to such physical structures or visual representations but argues for further integration of sensory processes in the production of places.

More specifically for our purposes, places are also ‘made’ for the purposes of tourism and events. Tourism stakeholders produce places physically to enable tourism and tourist functions (Bærenholdt & Haldrup, 2006). For example, mega-events require the creation of new fixed infrastructure including stadia or event centres as well as supporting accommodation and leisure facilities. In addition, places are physically transformed from everyday spaces to the places of events through temporary infrastructure as well as the often-significant influx of people (Hall & Page, 2012). Stakeholders also produce places symbolically to convey certain ideas that are of interest to potential visitors (Bærenholdt & Haldrup, 2006). Alderman et al. (2012) emphasize that the material and discursive processes of production are interrelated. Tourists also have a part to play in the place-making process as both producers and consumers (Everett, 2012). Bærenholdt and Haldrup (2006) argue that research should pay greater attention to the complex and heterogeneous networks that produce tourist places in the modern world.

Even the process of naming places is part of place making (Vuolteenaho & Berg, 2009). Tuan (1991, p. 688) writes, ‘Naming is power – the creative power to call something into being, to render the invisible visible, to impart a certain character to things’. He argues that names have the ability to distinguish places (Tuan, 1991). Although place names are often ‘taken for granted’, they can be politically charged (Vuolteenaho & Berg, 2009). Place names act as symbols that hold historical or cultural meanings and play a role in shaping the place identities (Hakala et al., 2015). The meanings associated with place names may also be deliberately intended to shape ideas about that place (Anholt, 2010a).

Much attention has been given to street names. These names have practical functions in designating locations and facilitating navigation; they can also be cultural signifiers that convey certain ideas (Azaryahu, 2009). For instance, Alderman (2009) considers the commemoration of Martin Luther King Jr. through street names throughout the United States to be a part of a larger movement to address the exclusion of African Americans from the national historical consciousness. In another case, Shoval (2013) notes the use of street names to enhance tourist development and destination attractiveness in the case of the Old City of Acre, Israel. He discusses the conflict that exists between these names and the unofficial oral names used by residents. Some streets that have a particular sentimental value are used for formal and informal events, as we see in Chapter 14 on Folsom Street.

Sense of place has long played a role in understandings of place. This refers to the association with and emotional attachment to places based on the meanings given to those places (Cresswell, 2015). It is one of the ways we are connected to the world and therefore an integral part of the human experience (Relph, 1997). Scholars have long argued that sense of place develops with sensory, cognitive, and affective experiences over time (Campelo, 2015), and has been explored in the event studies literature (see Derrett, 2003). Thus, it has typically been associated with the places in which we live and with which we have a significant relationship. Tuan (1975, p. 164) writes that ‘sense of place is rarely acquired in passing. To know a place well requires long residence and deep involvement’. Residents’ sense of place may be conveyed to visitors as a means of promoting distinctiveness or as an expression of pride. In a study of community cultural festivals, Derrett (2003) finds that these events reflect both the community’s sense of itself and its sense of place. Even more informal sporting events can offer useful context on place, identity, and community. For example, Wise (2015) found that weekend football matches organized by Haitians were a way to create a sense of place despite feelings of being out of place in the Dominican Republic.

Researchers have also recognized that we may acquire a sense of place through other means as well (Cresswell, 2015). In particular, we can develop a sense of place for the places that we visit, although perhaps in different ways (Nelson, 2017). Some studies find that visited places can indeed be deeply meaningful for tourists, while others consider differences in sense of place for residents and visitors (Kianicka et al., 2006). Additionally, the concept has been adapted for tourism in various contexts. For instance, sense of place has been used to represent the ways in which visitors can gain insight into the characteristics of destinations, such as a meal that is ‘true to place’ (Scarpato & Daniele, 2003), or is perceived as getting an authentic experience. While numerous studies in the field of tourism look at sense of place and experiences whilst being mobile, more work is needed in the area of event studies taking similar approaches.

Place attachment is viewed as a part of a larger sense of place (Amsden et al., 2011). Both personal and social interactions can contribute to an emotional connection, typically positive, to a place (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2001; Stedman, 2003). It is a feeling of rootedness or belonging in that place. Again, familiarity is a part of this attachment both in terms of detailed knowledge of and care for a place (Relph, 1976). Despite longstanding concerns about the role of place in the modern world, studies continue to show peoples’ strong attachment to places (Lewicka, 2011). Gu & Ryan (2008) discuss the impact of tourism on place attachment. Depending on the nature of tourism in a place, this may be positive or negative. For example, in the study of a Chinese hutong, tourism was recognized as providing an impetus for the preservation of architectural heritage in the face of urban change. This architectural heritage featured prominently in residents’ place attachment (Gu & Ryan, 2008).

Although the focus has often been on the attachment to the places in which people live, Lew (1989) notes that visitors to a place may wish to feel the sense of belonging experienced by residents. Recent scholarship has given further attention to attachment to places other than permanent residences (Brown et al., 2016; Lewicka, 2011). Derrett (2003) contends that events create opportunities for visitors to experience and connect to a place. Kaplanidou et al. (2012) consider the potential for destinations that host recurring sport events to generate place attachment among tourists. In particular, the authors argue that active sport tourists (i.e. those who participate in the event) directly engage with the place in terms of both its physical and social environments. Thus, such visitors may be more likely to develop an attachment to that place. A positive experience can help create attachment, and this has the potential to translate into greater loyalty to both the event and the destination. Likewise, studies by Lee, Kyle, and Scott (2012) and Brown et al. (2016) consider the relationship between place attachment, satisfaction, and destination loyalty in the case of events ranging from community-based agricultural festivals in the former to the Olympic Games in the latter.

Place disruption refers to the processes of change in a place that affect place attachment. These changes, physical or social, can lead to a sense of displacement as well as emotions such as anxiety or loss (Devine-Wright, 2009). Place disruption can be a product of tourism. For example, in Gu and Ryan’s (2008) study, some respondents indicated an eroded place attachment. This was attributed to the disruption to typical community social interactions caused by the influx of outsiders. The negative emotions that result can lead to ‘place-protective action’ (Stedman, 2002), or various efforts to prevent changes that people believe will affect place attachment (Devine-Wright, 2009).

Because of the direct correlation between attachment and change, place disruption is more commonly considered to occur among residents than tourists. However, past and potential visitors can also experience a sense of disruption when a place is threatened. Nelson (2010) examines the social media responses to news reports about a proposed oil refinery project on the Caribbean island of Dominica. This was viewed as a threat to Dominica’s ‘nature island’ identity. She found that even those who had no previous first-hand experience with the destination expressed a sense of loss about something that might happen.

In the environmental psychology literature, the term ‘place identity’ is used to refer to the ways in which components of a place contributes to an individual’s sense of self or identity (Devine-Wright, 2009). However, in the tourism literature, place identity is used to refer to the meanings attached to places for internal or external audiences (Kneafsey, 2000). Such place identities are constructed through various historical, cultural, and political discourses (Govers & Go, 2009). In addition, tourism has a part to play in the construction and reproduction of place identities, particularly the ideas of place that are presented to external audiences (Light, 2001). De Bres & Davis (2001) find that community festivals can celebrate and enhance place identity. Examples of this are further outlined in Boissevain’s (2013) book looking at community gatherings across the Mediterranean,...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Events, places and societies: introducing cases, perspectives and research directions
• 1. Introduction to place
• 2. Privilege on the Pearl: the politics of place and the 2016 UCI Road Cycling World Championships in Doha, Qatar
• 3. Social impacts and implications of hosting festivals on the place and local community: the EXIT Festival in Novi Sad, Serbia
• 4. The spaces, places, and landscapes of Brazil’s Carnival: racialized geographies and multiscale perspectives of Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre
• 5. Renewing Rijeka for 2020: managing placemaking, regeneration, and community participation
• 6. Cinematic sense of place: embodied celluloid spectres on the red carpet in Cannes
• 7. Qingdao International Beer Festival: place identity and colonial heritage
• 8. A taste of place: the Hokitika Wildfoods Festival in New Zealand
• 9. Durban and the forfeiture of the 2022 Commonwealth Games: a bid won and lost by default
• 10. Cultural sites of tension in the Iditarod of Alaska
• 11. Reinventing and reimagining rural Wales: the case of the World Alternative Games
• 12. Re-creating the clan: “brotherhood” and solidarity at the Masters World Championship Highland Games
• 13. La Monoestrellada and the display of identity politics in Puerto Rico: cultural activism and placemaking in 78 pueblos y 1 bandera
• 14. Follow the leather brick road: place, community and the Folsom Street Fair in San Francisco and beyond
• 15. Whose Europe?: representing place in the Ryder Cup
• 16. Linking geographical and sociological interpretations: place, society and Diwali around the world
• Conclusion: Expanding (inter)disciplinary perspectives in research on events
• Index