Animals, Food, and Tourism

Carol Kline

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9781138291607
• eBook ISBN: 9781351966344
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Hospitality, Travel & Tourism Industry
• Index: Business

Food is routinely given attention in tourism research as a motivator of travel. Regardless of whether tourists travel with a primary motivation for experiencing local food, eating is required during their trip. This book encompasses an interdisciplinary discussion of animals as a source of food within the context of tourism. Themes include the raising, harvesting, and processing of farm animals for food; considerations in marketing animals as food; and the link between consuming animals and current environmental concerns. Ethical issues are addressed in social, economic, environmental, and political terms.

The chapters are grounded in ethics-related theories and frameworks including critical theory, ecofeminism, gustatory ethics, environmental ethics, ethics within a political economy context, cultural relativism, market construction paradigm, ethical resistance, and the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria. Several chapters explore contradicting and paradoxical ethical perspectives, whether those contradictions exist between government and private sector, between tourism and other industries, or whether they lie within ourselves.

Like the authors in Tourism Experiences & Animal Consumption: Contested Values, Morality, & Ethics, the authors in this book wrestle with a range of issues such as animal sentience, the environmental consequences of animals as food, viewing animals solely as a extractive resource for human will, as well as the artificial cultural distortion of animals as food for tourism marketing purposes. This book will appeal to tourism academics and graduate students as a reference for their own research or as supplementary material for courses focused on ethics within tourism.

1 Introduction to Animals, Food, and Tourism

Kristin M. Lamoureux

Since the beginning of humankind, across all societies and cultures, humans have maintained deep and dependent relationships with non-human animals. The relationship between non-human animals, be they wild or domestic, companion or service, and their human counterparts is extensive, touching nearly every facet of the human experience. Indeed, the role animals have had in the human story is so ubiquitous that it is often taken for granted. Regardless of the whether non-human animals have served as companions, shelter, tools, transportation, entertainment, and most importantly, as food, the story of human existence is also one of human–animal relationships.

Given the profound dependence humans have had and continue to have on animals, it is not surprising that an area as diverse as tourism would also engage animals in an equally profound and widespread manner (Markwell, 2015). Animals – alive, dead or as symbols – are arguably the single largest contributor to the tourism experience. What would a trip to Disney feel like if all animal representations were removed? If a visit to Disney were devoid of Mickey, Minnie, and Pluto, would Disney’s hold of child’s fascination remain intact? Or would trips to safari destinations like South Africa, Kenya, or Tanzania continue to exist as iconic ‘bucket list’ destinations without wildlife viewing opportunities? Whale-watching, birdwatching, horseback riding, camel races, zoo and aquarium visits, and the like – all tourism major tourism activities dependent on a human–animal interaction.

Further, what would the impact be on the tourism experience if, for example, a visit to Cuzco no longer entailed savoring a freshly made fish ceviche before braving the hike to Machu Picchu; or a trip to a rodeo in the United States without sampling the local barbeque; or sampling fish balls in Hong Kong; or sipping yak’s milk on the high plains of the Tibetan Plateau? All of these experiences and many more are so deeply entrenched in the tourism experience that it would be almost impossible for some to contemplate a visit to these destinations without tasting their iconic dishes or, more bluntly, the animal, or parts thereof, from which these flavors are derived.

To this end, while the body of literature documenting human–animal interactions has grown, this book seeks to make a meaningful, theoretically grounded contribution to this growing body of knowledge by specifically focusing on the little studied, but significant aspect of animals as food as part of the tourism experience. Animals as food or as food for animal attractions is one of the most, if not the most, significant and pervasive use of animals in tourism. The research that each of these authors presents, provides insight into various aspects of this topic, raises awareness, and asks the reader to think critically about them. Future researchers, students, and the public are invited to question the ethical implications of the use of animals as food as well as the potential opportunities to educate, adapt behavior, and consider the sustainability of these activities.

As humans, we live with, love, and respect animals. At the same time, we target, entrap, maim, and slaughter animals. The paradox of these human–animal relationships, which allows us to feed our children chicken strips while entertaining them with an endearing Sesame Street Big Bird episode, is complex. These relationships grow even more complex when individuals are removed from their day-to-day activities to partake in a tourism experience. The suspension of traditional ethical norms, the desire to explore the exotic, or to partake in the authentic experience, all serve as incentives to experience the destination with little concern for the consequences of these actions. If, as an industry, tourism seeks to exploit these actions by failing to protect the animals that are so integral to the experience, the tourism sector will once again continue to metaphorically and quite literally kill the goose that laid the golden egg.

Human–animal relationships and the tourism experience

Anthrozoology or the study of human–animal relationships has grown rich with insight on a broad range of topics. The study of the broad array of human–animal interrelationships and their constant evolution is well documented. As DeMello (2010) outlined in his seminal work on this topic, the study of human–animal relationships and the implications of these relationships has an important role across disciplines. The deep social and cultural implications of these diverse relationships provide a fascinating platform from which to delve into their ever-changing nature. These complex relationships, full of inconsistencies and ambiguities, have been considered through the lens of many distinct disciplines, including animal welfare, food security, human health, and biodiversity conservation, among others (e.g. Cohen & Avieli, 2004; DeMello, 2010; Franklin, 1999; Herzog, 2010; Serpell, 1996).

Over the last several decades, the study of human–animal relationships within the tourism context has also emerged. Contributing to the depth and breadth of the emerging body of knowledge of anthrozoology, research on this topic, albeit nascent compared to the study of human–animal relationships in other disciplines, has begun to develop, and much like tourism itself, is diverse and complex in nature (e.g. Carr, 2009; Fennell, 2012; Markwell, 2015). Carr (2009) argues that the relevance of animals as part of the tourism experience will become increasingly more important as trends in tourism and leisure activities change, as well as human relationships with animals evolve. Thus, it is imperative that animal welfare also be factored prominently in this discussion.

From a theoretical perspective, the study of animals in tourism has emerged and evolved during the past thirty years. Human–animal relationships in the tourism space first emerged out of the conservation, wildlife-viewing, and ecotourism literature. Academics and conservationists sought to make the argument that wildlife had an inherent value, not as sentient beings, but rather as attractions upon or within which the tourism industry could develop. For example, the researchers argued that a live shark or lion had a greater economic value as a tourism attraction or hunting subject over one that had been killed for food (Davis & Tisdell, 1999; Shackley, 1996). This was followed by the emergence of wildlife tourism (e.g. Boo, 1990; Lovelock, 2008; Topelko & Dearden, 2005); hunting and game tourism (e.g. Baker, 1997; Barnes, Burgess, & Pearce, 1992);and niche topics like birdwatching, safari photography tourism, and gorilla watching (e.g. Blom, 2000; Moscardo, 2000), just to name a few. In the last decade, the literature has taken a decided turn toward the issue of animals in tourism and the ethical implications (e.g. Burns, 2015; Fennell, 2012; World Society for the Protection of Animals, 2012).

Today, research around human–animal interactions in tourism has moved beyond the conservation literature to a much wider breath of topics. From a destination management perspective, researchers have explored the relevance and ethics of animals as icons or symbols for tourism marketing (Bertella, 2013; Tremblay, 2002). Others have explored issues of policies and governance of animals exploited or engaged in tourism (Duffy & Moore, 2010; Lovelock, 2015). Of course, research around the use of animals in captivity has garnered significant interest, possibly contributing to changes in what are deemed acceptable practices in this space (e.g. Ventre & Jett, 2015; Wearing & Jobberns, 2015).

Entire tomes have been published on the topics of animal welfare and tourism (e.g. Markwell, 2015) and animal ethics in the tourism space (e.g. Fennell, 2012). At the same time, popular opinion is also shifting. Large companies such as Expedia/Travelocity have enacted policies to monitor animal attractions sold on their site. SeaWorld has announced that it will phase out its captive orca breeding programs and Barnum & Bailey Circus will cease operations after several years of poor ticket sales and pressure to disband their large animal programs.

There is no question that the study of human–animal interactions in the tourism space has progressed. Major industry shifts have been seen, such as those discussed below. Significant contributions have been made in theoretical research. However, the issue of animal consumption, animal food chain exploitation, and the general welfare of animals used as food remains largely unexplored.

Animals as food in the tourism experience

As the body of knowledge around human–animal relationship in the leisure and tourism space has grown, little attention has been paid to the role of animals as food in the tourism experience. Even the United Nations World Tourism Association (UNWTO) Global Code of Ethics makes no mention of the ethical implications of animal consumption either as food or as food for attractions (Fennell, 2014).

A cursory review of the study of animals as food within the tourism experience yields, with a few notable exceptions (e.g. Fennell 2012, 2014; Mkono, 2015), very little results. In his review of human–animal relationships, Markwell (2015) found that within the tourism experience, animals as food are typically considered commodities, along with animals as apparel, traditional medicine, and souvenirs. In this model, animals as food are not included in either the pre-travel or post-travel experience. Carr (2009) argues that there is a distinct need to integrate emerging theories around animal rights into the unique reality of the tourism experience that has traditionally been tailored to focus on the desires of the human population above all else.

Traditionally, animals as part of the tourism experience are largely found within culinary tourism. There is no shortage of research around the value of food as part of a tourism experience, whether this be as a means to promote culinary tourism or to attract the “foodie” market, or simply as a commodity used to enhance the overall tourism experience (e.g. Ab Karim & Chi, 2010; Boniface, 2003; Horng &Tsai, 2010; Long, 2004). However, there is little to no mention of the animal as a sentient being, rather than simply the dish resulting from its death. The consumption of animals, either whole or in part, is systematically sterilized. To question where our food comes from would raise unsettling issues surrounding the morality of such consumption (Fennell, 2012).

From the popular press, for years, travel magazines such as Conde Nast and culinary magazines such as Gourmet, have positioned the notion of experiencing local delicacies as almost a “rite of passage” or an elite activity, something beyond the “touristy” experience. Tourism marketers contribute to the idea of typical foods, either created or traditional, as an experience that allows travelers a unique opportunity to immerse themselves in the location through a culinary experience.

Alternative tourism and its implications on animals as food

In addition to the unsettling lack of attention to the animal as more than a commodity within the tourism experience, it is also important to consider the dichotomy that now exists between this push for an alternative, authentic, or transformational tourism, and the implications that these growing trends have on animals used as food and the animal food chain.

As conservation and sustainability started percolating in tourism research, so did the slow but rising concern for an alternative to the growth in “mass tourism.” As tourism tastes evolve, so does the movement away from the large-scale generic tourism experience, to what is often called a more authentic experience. Academics, practitioners, and the tourists themselves were looking for something “greener.” Thus, several decades of research and consumer demand led to an increased awareness of the environmental impact of tourism, as well as greater concern regarding the social ills bred through poorly planned tourism, and an overall push to a tourism experience that is less “touristy” and more “authentic” (e.g. Wood, 2002).

Tourists are encouraged to partake in what is commonly known as typical foods, native foods, local foods, or comida tipica, all terms which invoke a sense of place (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Sidali, Kastenholz, & Bianchi, 2015; Torres, 2002). Gastronomy is often used to foster a sense of place or belonging within the destination. Visitors are afforded the opportunity for an authentic experience by stepping out from the “tourist” label and experience the destination like a local. To many, breaking bread with the locals or eating traditional foods affords them the much more valued opportunity to feel like a pseudo-local or worldly “traveler.” As Fennel and Maxwell (2015) noted, even those organizations offering ecotourism experiences, who score well on sustainable practices, often do no better than others when considering the ethical implications of their animal food sourcing. In some ways, this type of tourism may be preferred to larger-scale tourism development; it does not, however, release the visitor or the host from an ethical responsibility toward the animal on the plate.

While the topics covered in this tome vary across the issue of tourism and food, several of the authors of the chapters speak to the concept of “typical foods” as part of the tourism experience. In each case, the animal presented is a food authentic to that area, either because of tradition or through intense marketing. In some cases, these dishes have existed as a staple of local diets for decades. However, with the influx of tourism seeking the “authentic” or the special, the animals that are sacrificed for these dishes are now being pushed beyond local consumption, and often well out of the context of the traditional aspects of its origin. The authors make the argument that these cuisines are, in fact, sentient beings, first and foremost, rather than simply commodities within the typical tourism experience.

One interesting trend within sustainable tourism that may offer promise in the area of animals as food is that of transformational tourism. Advocates argue that transformational tourism has the power to change human behavior and make a positive impact on the world (Reisinger, 2015). It is assumed that this positive impact goes beyond benefits to humans. For tourism to truly be transformational, and thus have a positive impact on the world, it is imperative that it not cause suffering to any of the sentient beings, non-human animals included, that are involved. Although this is a fairly new tourism trend, it is an opportunity for the tourist and the provider to think more deeply about all of the impacts of tourism. At some point, it is inevitable that humans, with their desire to create a positive impact on the world, will have to take a look inward at the suffering their own existence is creating through consumption.

As Fennell (2012) argues, humans often prefer to turn a blind eye to the origins of their food, as to do otherwise would force us to consider the morality of such consumption. It is difficult to probe too deeply because to acknowledge animal suffering, we would also have to implicate ourselves as consumers. However, if a larger portion of the traveling population were to actually consider the impacts of animals as food offered as part of the tourism experience, then an outcome would be greater awareness, and hopefully, consumer rejection of these commodities, either in their pre-trip decision making or post-trip reflection.

While the trends mentioned above, paired with the growing body of knowledge of animal welfare in the tourism experience, does provide some hope, a significant shift is necessary. Not only is there a need to rethink the need for animal consumption, but also, specific to tourism, there is a need to shift away from the traditional hedonistic model of tourism consumption where the entire experience is designed to provide pleasure to the consumer (Carr, 2009), to one that encompasses a wider, more holistic appreciation for the other sentient beings impacted by the tourist experience.

Animals, Food, and Tourism book structure

The book is made up of eleven cases exploring animals and their role as food within the tourism experience. Several of the authors focus on a specific example of ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Acknowledgments
• Reviewer acknowledgments
• 1 Introduction to Animals, Food, and Tourism
• 2 The gustatory ethics of “Consider the Lobster”
• 3 When the wildlife you watch becomes the food you eat: exploring moral and ethical dilemmas when consumptive and non-consumptive tourism merge
• 4 The (unethical) consumption of a newborn animal: cabrito as a tourist and recreational dish in Monterrey, Mexico
• 5 Provisioning in the animal tourism industry: through the lens of the Amazon river dolphin
• 6 Animals off the menu: how animals enter the vegan food experience
• 7 The cow goes “moo”: farm animal and tourist interactions on Long Island’s North Fork
• 8 Feed thy tourist well: CAFOs or cooperatives?
• 9 A life worth living: reindeer in Nordic tourism experiences
• 10 The fishy ethics of seafood tourism
• 11 Melbourne, the food capital of Australia: human and animal encounters in the contact zone of tourism
• 12 Munch, crunch, it’s whale for lunch: exploring the politics of Japanese consumption of whales, whaling, and whale watching
• 13 Animals and food: transcending the anthrocentric duality of utility
• Index