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CHAPTER 1
TAKING A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
Linda Miller and Linda Pound
Overview
The chapters in this book explore both contemporary and historical perspectives relating to some of the theories and approaches which have influenced Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) today. This chapter gives an overview of the structure of the book and its rationale. In the chapter, we signpost some key themes raised in the ensuing chapters and invite you to take a critical stance in relation to the identified themes and to reflect on these in the light of present day issues. The book is divided into three parts: Theoretical and Analytical Positions; Foundational Theories; and Contemporary Theories. In Parts 2 and 3 of the book, the chapters are written by âadvocatesâ of distinctive approaches to ECEC. One dictionary definition of an advocate is, âa person who supports or speaks in favour ofâ (our italics) (Allen, 1991). Each of the chapter authors are âchampionsâ of, and passionate about, a particular and distinctive approach to learning and pedagogy, and each approach is underpinned by particular theoretical frameworks. However, theories are not a truth but an explanation and will influence practice depending on the views and beliefs (based on these theories) held by the practitioner, or perhaps the ethos and philosophy of the setting in which she works. The chapters also consider change, transformation and continuity within each approach and its relevance to current policy and practice.
The purpose of this book is to encourage you to examine the different theories and approaches presented and to consider the implications for your own practice. In this first chapter, we invite you to critically reflect upon and consider your own individual position and perspective and to take a critical stance in relation to each chapter. Questions and discussion points at the end of this chapter (and also within each chapter) encourage you to examine each approach through your own particular lens. We hope that in using the framework we offer, you will have the opportunity to âstep backâ and develop a critical perspective in relation to each chapter â so that you see what may be familiar with a new and critical eye. We have no doubt that some ideas you will âthrow awayâ; other ideas you will take with you. We hope that as a result of reading this book, new meanings will emerge and it will help you to look at practice in a different way.
In this book, we take the view that the terms early years and early years education and care should be seen as encompassing âeducationâ but with a care component and that it should be impossible to educate without caring, nor care without developing and promoting childrenâs learning. We also use the term she when referring to individuals of both genders.
Organization of the book
We have inevitably been selective in choosing the theories and approaches included in this book. The history of ECEC is both fascinating and convoluted and to do that rich history full justice is beyond the scope of any one single book. We have, for example,
not included a chapter on constructivism â either Piagetian or Vygotskian â since their theories are widely discussed elsewhere (Donaldson, 1976; Rogoff, 1990) and underpin so much current thinking about young children (Johnson, 2010). Constructivist theories are key to, and explicit within, for example, HighScope, Reggio Emilia and Te Wh
riki (see this chapter and
Chapters 7 and
10). In other perhaps less developed initiatives, such as the work of Vivian Gussin Paley (
Chapter 8) and the development of Forest Schools (
Chapter 9), constructivism is less explicit but equally influential.
Nor have we included anything on highly influential thinkers such as John Dewey or Susan Isaacs. Both deserve a special place in the history and philosophy of early childhood education â but neither approach is explicit in current practice in the United Kingdom, so have been omitted from this book. In much the same way as Julia Manning-Morton (see Chapter 2) suggests that psychoanalytical theories are implicit within high-quality care and education for young children, so the work of Dewey and Isaacs are implicit in much current practice. With their different but related emphases on empowerment and supporting children in making the connections that enable learning, their influence continues to be felt.
The interrelatedness of the theories and approaches is an interesting aspect of the chapters. For example, Froebelâs theory, as Tina Bruce points out in Chapter 4, continues to have great influence but owed much to the work of Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Owen. We hope that these common threads and shared histories will become apparent as you read this book. As we note above, each chapter represents the views of individuals committed to a particular approach and set of theories, although each chapter offers a critique. Therefore, the views represented are not impartial but they are informed and knowledgeable. It is for you as the reader to consider the views presented and to reflect upon what they say to you and to form your own views.
The first part of the book is dedicated to Theoretical and Analytical Positions. The two chapters focus, not on a single approach or theory, but on sets of ideas which support a reflective and analytical view of work with young children. In Chapter 2, Julia Manning-Morton considers the way in which the broad raft of psychoanalytical theories underpins all practice in ECEC (or perhaps all practice in life). The chapter has particular importance for two key reasons. The first is that, aside from attachment, the full impact of psychoanalytical theories on adult interactions with young children is not always fully understood. The second reason for its importance is in inviting critical reflection on the way in which our own feelings and emotions shape the psychological well-being of the children with whom we work. The other chapter in this section, by Deb Albon, focuses on postmodern theories and offers an invitation to âdeconstructâ other approaches and theories. Albon raises interesting and challenging questions which may help you to bring a critical edge to your reading and thinking.
Part 2 focuses on what we have termed âFoundational Theoriesâ and begins with an overview of the work of Froebel by Tina Bruce. The remaining two chapters consider the specific approaches and clear theoretical underpinning of Steiner Waldorf schools and Montessori schools. Both have a long history but are being reviewed in the light of current thinking. Conroy et al. (2008: 16) suggest that their contribution might lie in the now âstronger emphasis on individual capabilities and a more significant focus on the affectiveâ. These three chapters together serve to remind us of the pioneering practice which continues to contribute much to ECEC throughout the world. The approaches have much in common and yet, at the same time, many differences (Bruce, 2005). However, in all three, the child is placed firmly at the centre of thinking and practice.
In
Part 3, âContemporary Theoriesâ, the chapters are concerned with more recent approaches to ECEC.
Chapter 7 focuses on HighScope which, although highly influential, has, when compared to the foundational theories explored in
Part 2, a relatively short history. HighScope was established around 50 years ago in the United States and the longitudinal research findings which have emerged from it were the rationale for setting up Sure Start in England. In
Chapter 8, Trisha Lee offers a personal account of the impact the work of Vivian Gussin Paley has had on her thinking and practice through a story-telling and story-acting approach. Sarah Blackwell and
Linda Pound in
Chapter 9 provide an historical overview of the development of outdoor provision and the place of Forest Schools within that development. They describe the work of Forest Schools and discuss the benefits of outdoor experiences and risk taking in what they see as a current risk-adverse culture. The roles of culture and community are explored in
Chapter 10 where Anne B. Smith describes Te Wha
riki, New Zealandâs early childhood curriculum, which reflects a holistic and bicultural vision for childhood. She describes a curriculum developed by M
ori and P
keha partners and which included wide consultation with a bicultural community and key stakeholders, and which emphasizes childrenâs participation in shared meaningful activities.
The final chapter in the book draws together what we see as the critical issues raised by the chapters in this book.
Historical context
Early childhood care and education has a long and interesting history. Writers and thinkers from even before the 17th century onwards have influenced the way in which education, including early education, has been shaped and developed in more recent times. Although it is with the work of Froebel that the exploration of specific theories and approaches to early childhood care and education begins in this book (see Chapter 4), we should be aware of the precedents which shaped his thinking. Pestalozziâs belief that love, work and social interaction were the foundations of development shaped both his work and that of Froebel. Despite this formative and fascinating early work, it is within the 20th century that the history of early childhood care and education really begins to burgeon â but again this has older historical roots. Robert Owenâs work in New Lanark is not explored in this book but it was he who established what has been described as the first workplace nursery in the early part of the 19th century. He and Froebel held different perspectives and their work had different roots but the ideals of both were to influence developments in the early part of the 20th century. The work of the McMillan sisters in England, looking at the needs of severely socio-economically disadvantaged children and communities, held the same compassion as Owenâs pioneering work. Their emphasis on nature drew on Froebelâs theories and approaches, as Tina Bruce points out in Chapter 4.
The interrelatedness of theories is something to be borne in mind as you read this book. Theories have roots and precedents and they go on to spark new theories and ideas. Theories are also shaped by the contemporary social context and these influence popular views of childhood, curriculum and pedagogy.
Themes and threads
In this section, we highlight some of the key themes and interrelated threads which permeate and link the chapters. We have added questions at the end of the chapter as a framework for your thinking and reflection. The themes explored are:
- children and childhood
- curricula, learning and play
- the role of adults
- the nature of research and evidence.
Children and childhood
The theories and approaches outlined in this book have at their heart careful observation, intense listening and a desire to tune into children â to understand what they seek to understand and to know. We should not forget that childhood is a construction that arises from historical, cultural and economic conditions (Kellet, 2010) and that educators can hold multiple views or constructions of children. Practitioners can recognize both the child in need of nurture and the child as agent of their own learning. It is reflection which helps us to understand and reconcile what are sometimes apparently irreconcilable views.
The way in which children are represented informs the way in which teaching and learning develop. The metaphor of a garden (or kindergarten) is key in Froebelâs work â as the context for learning, needed if the plant (or child) is to thrive. If you think of children as blossoming plants in need of nurturing, then your approach will be different than if you primarily think of education as âa process of living, not a preparation for future livingâ (Nutbrown et al., 2008: 43, citing Dewey, 1897). This assumes, as, is the case in Reggio Emilia nurseries (see below), that the child is a powerful and active agent in her own learning. This view of children as active agents in their own learning encompasses ideas of listening to or learning from the child (Clark et al., 2005) but is not in itself new. Each of the theories and approaches outlined in this book views children in this light and although practitioners understand and share this view, their interpretation of that may be different. This is because each of us also holds our own views of children and childhood and these, like theories, contain something of earlier views.
James et al. (1998) suggest that historical views of childhood (or pre-sociological views) include ideas of innocence and evil; natural development or the empty vessel; or the child without will or consciousness. They...
