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Part 1
Research, development and innovation
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Chapter 1
Introduction
The scientific method is something any researcher can master with daily practice. If it is used properly it can bring fantastic results and guide the process of building knowledge and solving practical problems. It has well-established procedures, while at the same time revealing the researcherâs style of doing work. In addition to the scientific method, most of the innovative processes in industry are guided by the application of some quality classical tools. These include brainstorming, Ishikawa diagrams, Pareto graphs, PDCA cycles and mind maps (see Chapter 3). The use of these techniques is common to almost all industrial sectors and hierarchical levels. However, even using the best tools available, many industrial research centres do not identify opportunities in the market; establish priorities in research, development and innovation; secure their investments with patents; or implement non-disclosure policies and practices. Furthermore, some researchers fail to adhere to ethical conduct while doing their work. This text is about all these and other roadblocks affecting the innovation process in industry. I have provided examples to illustrate this. The book is written to help postgraduate students and professionals understand important aspects of their work in research, development and innovation in industry. However, before discussing details of the scientific method, scientists need to discuss why they do research, and to identify the interests of industry in doing research.
WHY DO SCIENTISTS DO RESEARCH?
Many problems can be solved without having to do research. These problems are the ones that have immediate solutions. For example, when it rains (problem) you should look for shelter (solution). Even if the problem becomes a little more complicated, the solution will be immediate. For example, if there is lightning you should stay away from trees and high terrain. Note that you have made use of scientific knowledge: the incidence of lightning strikes is much higher near trees and in high terrain. What if there is a risk of a flash flood, or a landslide? Well, you should still look for an appropriate place in which to shelter! But I donât want to exhaust you so early in the book. By now you will have noted that, as the problem becomes more complicated, you will need to have more knowledge about it; need to collect more data; need to analyse the possible solutions; need to exclude some of those and evaluate to check if your solution really does solve the problem.
Scientists carry out research to solve problems that have no immediate solution. Many researchers1 put a lot of effort into finding solutions that will increase the quality of products or decrease the production costs in their industry. Other researchers are interested in improving the environmental performance of the organisation they are working for. Improving quality of life is another example that interests many others. In all these cases, the subject chosen for study is called the problem and the desired result is the solution.
You can use common sense to solve many simple problems. However, common sense is limited; it is based on immediate perception, collective beliefs, experience, personal conviction or even on emotion. Common sense does not submit itself to systematic criticism and is based on opinions. Scientific research rejects the common sense approach.
Research is needed when the problem has no immediate solution. Research is performed using specific criteria â these criteria constitute a classical method, widely accepted as the best available procedure to solve problems. This procedure is called the âscientific methodâ. In this book I will explore this method in detail.
There are of course other ways to obtain knowledge. In addition to the scientific method you can use philosophy, metaphysics, psychology,2 and theology. However, here I will discuss how to solve problems with the scientific method, not with prayer! Science is about explaining the nature of the problem, not blindly trusting that you know what the problem is.
When you have selected your method, think of it as your way of achieving something and look on techniques or tools as the resources you can use to implement that method. (In my view, it is worth describing not only the scientific method but also the tools you can use to implement it.) Techniques I will present in this book are widely used and well known in industry. They are quality tools such as brainstorming, Pareto and Ishikawa diagrams, GUT (gravity, urgency and tendency) analysis, among others.
The scientific method can be understood as a way to generate knowledge from information published on a selected problem; the proper way of obtaining and handling data; the systematic analysis of data; and the use of the information obtained to test a given hypothesis and propose a new thesis that would explain the studied problem.
The value of research in industry comes from a good definition of the problem, a reasonable explanation of its causes and consequences, improvement of processes, cost reduction and so on. There are some companies that carry out research to identify and create market opportunities.
Research requires motivation, innovation, commitment and curiosity. A researcher is a professional prepared to think differently and to analyse alternatives. He or she is someone who has the potential to generate new ideas and do innovative work. Usually researchers have more questions than they have answers. An experienced researcher knows what method to use to obtain answers: very simply â it is the scientific method.
INTERESTS OF INDUSTRY AND PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
A responsible company wants its business to be sustainable.3 This means the company wants profit, growth, the wellbeing of its staff, having a good relationship with stakeholders, satisfied clients, and a safe production process with minimum impact to the environment.
All or any one of these motives will drive an industry into doing research. However, even if you have an idea as to what is in the best interests of the industry, it is not an easy task to identify problems to study.
Research performed in industry is quite different from that carried out at a university. Two differences that are immediately identifiable are the time available to obtain the first results and the need for the application of the results. âGood researchâ in industry is research that brings results immediately; either explaining anomalies in a process or solving a production problem. There is no doubt the short time allowed for performing research limits the quality of the results obtained. Because of this pressure, less experienced researchers try to âearn timeâ by skipping some phases of the scientific method to produce results as soon as possible. This bad practice leads to poor definition of problems, a less thorough study of the literature, and hasty data sampling. This will also lead to poor data analysis, wrong conclusions and poor documentation of the research. The primary consequence of this practice is that the industryâs problems will persist.
Poor definition of a research problem is a dangerous habit. Researchers who skip some of the steps of the scientific method are likely to âgo around in circlesâ, and after some time theyâll come to believe that all problems are the same. It is important to bear in mind that when carrying out industrial research the time available should be carefully allocated and balanced. Restricting the time taken to achieve results can be a good practice to discipline researchers, but can also lead to bad results. Good managers of research projects should be able to balance the time available with the required quality of the research outcomes.
The industry undertaking research might prefer a good result that can be achieved quickly to an excellent result that takes ages to fulfil. In this case the industry expects its researchers to understand the problems they are facing and to be able to prioritise their work. My advice, if you plan to work in industrial research, is that you must learn the needs of the company as soon as possible. Most industries want good results in an agreed timeframe. An experienced researcher working in industry has to be able to estimate the impact of a proposed piece of research and set up success criteria for this. I can guarantee that this isnât easy. Many eminent researchers at universities or in government agencies could not bear to work under the pressure and constraints required by industrial research for extended periods of time.
In addition to good professionals, industrial research requires some degree of cooperation with universities and public organisations, good project and intellectual property managers, and a working environment well suited for the research activity.
In the next chapters I will discuss what tools are available for researchers, including the scientific method and its limitations, some ways of implementing the scientific method (such as quality tools), the quality of how you measure your data and the management of research projects. Following this, I will discuss secrecy and openness in industrial research, confidentiality and other precautions, scientific documentation and how you can communicate science to the wider society. I will also discuss the researcherâs responsibility, ethical aspects of science and values in research. Finally, I will argue the need for innovation in industrial research and 10 possible ways to promote innovation in the way industrial research is being proposed.
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Part 2
Tools for research
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Chapter 2
The scientific method and its limitations
In this chapter I will be discussing the scientific method. It will teach you how you can apply your own style to arrive at the solution of a problem in academic or industrial research while at the same time practising the scientific method. I will give some examples to illustrate how to go about understanding a problem and how to avoid the temptation of choosing too wide a problem to study. I will also discuss the importance of a good bibliographic survey, and how a literature review supports a better definition of research problems and helps you to propose experiments and hypotheses. Finally, you will gain some understanding of the steps involved in the confirmation of a hypothesis, the establishment of a thesis and the publication of results.
RULES OF THUMB
Imagine if someone offered you the best method ever devised to solve problems. Wouldnât you want to know all about it?
Well, here it is âŚ
There is one thing common to all good research, no matter what the subject is â its method. The scientific method could be seen as very rigid, but in fact itâs not. Take, as an analogy, a chess game. There are rules in this game that limit, constrain and define the way you can move each piece. But then what distinguishes a chess master from a common player like me? Both the Grand Masters and I know the rules. Also, how can different masters have different âstylesâ? Understanding the way each player applies their knowledge while following the rules is what makes chess such an interesting game. The rigour of those rules represents freedom for a good player; so it is with the scientific method. In using the scientific method you will be able to apply your own style and strategy and, with practice, you may become a master in research!
Iâm going to discuss the rules of the research game. Iâm going to show how the scientific method should be applied in industrial research, just like the regulations that govern how the queen and bishops move around a chessboard.
The scientific method consists of well-defined steps. Skipping one of these steps will result in disaster for your research â itâs like exposing your king in a chess game. The scientific method classically has the following steps:
- defining the problem to be investigated
- surveying the literature
- formulating one or more hypotheses
- testing your hypotheses
- establishing a thesis
- publishing the results.
Defining the problem to be investigated
Choosing a problem is the exercise of determining what you are going to study. In this first step you should present the relevance of your study subject, define the circumstances in which it occurs, why it affects a process, or why it is the cause of the problem you have decided to investigate.
A good way to pinpoint the subject of your research is to answer the following questions: âWhat am I studying?â and âWhat motivates me to do this work?â
The literature review
The literature review should not be just a list of papers, reports or books you eventually read and that are somehow related to your work. They should be a critical review of the relevant material you have consulted. The literature review should help you and the colleagues working with you to better define your research problem and to explain the opportunities to be explored in your work.
The literature survey should be the best answer to the question: âWhat has already been done about the problem we are investigating?â
Formulating a hypothesis
A good hypothesis should propose one or more solutions to the problem you have decided to study. It can be understood as the best interpretation of the problem, including its primary causes and its solution. A way of defining your hypothesis is to answer the following questions in as much detail as possible: âWhat causes my problem and when does it occur?â This is more about understanding the nature of a problem and better defining the problem to be studied than finding a solution.
Testing your hypothesis
Scientists do not accept a hypothesis that cannot be tested. To test your hypothesis you need to obtain data. This m...
