Joke-Performance in Africa

Mode, Media and Meaning

Ignatius Chukwumah, Ignatius Chukwumah

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781351668880
• Edition: 1

Jokes have always been part of African culture, but never have they been so blended with the strains and gains of the contemporary African world as today. Joke-Performance in Africa describes and analyses the diverse aesthetics, forms, and media of jokes and their performance and shows how African jokes embody the anxieties of the time and space in which they are enacted.

The book considers the pervasive phenomenon of jokes and their performance across Africa in such forms as local jests, street jokes, cartoons, mchongoano, ewhe-eje, stand-up comedy, internet sex jokes, and 'comicast' transmitted via modern technology media such as the TV, CDs, DVDs, the internet platforms of YouTube, Facebook, and other social arenas, as well as live performances. Countries represented are Egypt, Kenya, Malawi, Morocco, Nigeria, and Zambia, covering the North, West, East and Southern Africa. The book explores the description of the joke form from various perspectives, ranging from critical discourse analysis, interviews, humour theories, psychoanalysis, the postcolony and technauriture, to the interactive dramaturgy of joke-performances, irrespective of media and modes of performance.

Containing insightful contributions from leading African scholars, the book acquaints readers with detailed descriptions of the diverse aesthetics of contemporary African jokes, thereby contributing to the current understanding of joke-performance in Africa. It will appeal to students and scholars of African studies, popular culture, theatre, performance studies and literary studies.

Part I

Joking about the government

1 (Re)imagining the postcolony in Kenya’s The XYZ Show joke-cartoons

Remmy Shiundu Barasa

Introduction

Newspaper cartoons have over time played a significant role in social and political public discourse about serious contemporary issues in Kenya. They are mostly comic in their verbal–visual construction. But in recent times, a novel sort of joke-cartoon in motion pictures (hereafter, joke-cartoons) satirizing politicians and the misdemeanours of other public figures amongst Kenyans is taking over the internet. Dodds (2007) and Macpherson (2008) argue that humour and popular culture often function as a mirror through which the world and its political landscape become envisaged. With Ridanpää (2012) stating that the study of humour occupies various roles within a political establishment, though the issues involved may sound trivial to many people, this chapter focuses on Buni media’s The XYZ Show joke-cartoons in motion pictures with the aim of disclosing the various socio-political nuances and purposes they bear as they ultimately (re)imagine the contemporary Kenyan postcolony.

The idea of ‘(re)imagination’ arises from Macpherson’s (2008) submission that all humour is a social and political construct arising from the society in which it is embedded. Much as it emerges from society, it also gives impetus for political debates and severe conflicts (Kuus 2008). The XYZ Show – launched in 2009 as Kenya’s premier puppet political satire and so far running to hundreds of episodes with a television viewership of millions of people in Kenya and across the continent – in many respects reflects the above theorizing. The show is also run on numerous radio stations across Kenya and has a rich online presence, accessed on Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. It has a cast of latex characters who entertain their audience with wit and gusto. It seems to have been inspired by the French Guignols de l’Info and the British Spitting Image. Its latex characters are theatrical in their actions, complete with plot, voice and movements – attributes that make this form of cartoon distinct from the newspaper type.

Drawing on Mbembe’s (2001) theory of the postcolony, this chapter analyses selected XYZ Show political joke-cartoons which have been picked by purposive sampling to meet the objective of this study. I propose to give a general description of these cartoons as a novel popular artform and as one more means of expression; demonstrate that this type of cartoon appeals to a particular public taste that the print sort does not, and why this is so; and examine their contextual socio-political meanings and how these cartoons provide serious commentary on current issues, with Mbembe’s postcolony as the theoretical underpinning. With the selected cartoons being a kind of pop-cultural satire targeting key segments and individuals of the country, this chapter aims to gain a basic understanding of what constitutes Kenyans’ socio-political humour. The sample covers a period of two years, 2015–2016, for purposes of consistency and cohesion of the discussion. The fact that these years were characterized by political statements with all attention directed towards the 2017 general election makes this sample appropriate. I shall first offer some reflections on the relationship between humour and politics.

Reflections on humour in politics

Despite the popularity of political latex characters, the degree and nature of this type of satire’s influence is yet to be studied. This is an empirical question that requires a wide range of levels of analysis to determine valid or reliable conclusions. Humour has always played a major role in political life. In Kenya, humour has been used during every election and political circumstance. Yet, the place of humour in the political process is more a construct of human society than a phenomenon of politics itself. There is always some variation in what might be taken as humour in different cultures. Humour always finds itself a part of the agenda of public discourse even when it is not planned. It continues to spice political pronouncements despite its peripheral place as part of backroom, informal political conversations.

Researchers who have raised questions on various types of political joke argue that they turn a sceptical citizenry into a cynical one. There is some empirical verification to support this assertion, but the same argument applies to those who are more cynical about politics. Empirical research has shown that certain political jokes can spur critical thinking on socio-political issues and generate greater attitudinal structures (Palmer 1994). This may be manifested in changes of behaviour among the political class such as giving money to political causes, engaging in political talk or watching political contests.

There are certain Kenyan politicians who have theatrical and comedic moments. President Uhuru Kenyatta is one of them; former Prime Minister, Raila Odinga, is another in a large cast of political actors. They have jesting skills that quickly connect them to their audience. Dundes (1987) however argues that, if the presentation of humorous episodes seems forced, then the audience gives up and seeks other forms of entertainment.

A special case of humour often invoked by some in the political class is self-deprecation. President Uhuru Kenyatta has applied this skill well on a number of occasions. For example, the president blamed the devil for misleading him in his 2013 alleged choice of Musalia Mudavadi as the preferred presidential candidate instead of himself. The president has also wondered loudly on national TV what Kenyans expect him to do with the runaway corruption. Kenyan politicians are always looking for ways to appear like the common folk for strategic political reasons and self-deprecation is one sure tool to deliver this goal. Hill (2016), however, posits that self-deprecation is only valuable when the focus of the deprecation is seen to be a true character flaw. For example, President Kenyatta’s voluntary admission while on an official tour to Israel that corruption in Kenya was real and that Kenyans are thieves was meant to poke fun at himself for his futile efforts to contain corruption. It could also be possible that the president said it for self-image repair. Deputy President William Ruto is known for his witty political humour but it is noticeable how his assertion that former cabinet secretary, ‘Ann Waiguru should carry her own cross instead of cat-walking around’ – due to corruption allegations against her involving the National Youth Service scandal that finally saw her resign from government – could reinforce one audience’s belief that the government is guilty of corruption. Dundes (1987) observes that an attempt at self-deprecation could be interpreted as a gaudy attempt to receive praise if a character tries to make fun of something the audience perceives to be something positive he has done. Osman (2016) argues that such an attempt will not yield humour.

In some cases, humour can both unite and divide an audience. For instance, when a politician tries to amuse he can easily unite one audience while dividing another. When Deputy President William Ruto was cleared of any wrong-doing by the International Criminal Court at The Hague, he and President Uhuru Kenyatta mobilized their supporters to a huge ‘prayer’ rally in Nakuru, one of the epicentres of the 2007/2008 post-election violence in Kenya. Opposition leader, Raila Odinga – clearly seeing a political opportunity to deflate his competitors – dismissed the conveners of the rally as people who were ‘dancing on the graves of the dead’, in apparent reference to the victims of the post-election violence. Odinga’s political jab aimed at dividing Uhuru’s and Ruto’s followers who fought each other during the period and who were now being allegedly united by Uhuru and Ruto. Raila appeared to see the narrative of opening up healing wounds and hypocrisy in the whole matter of the ‘prayer’ rally. Zandberg (2006) argues that in this aspect, humour can function as a device with which traumatic pasts can be memorized and dealt with. In Kenya, humour is used to ridicule both the ruling class and the ruled in an attempt to ventilate the socio-political ills and economic degeneration in the country. Mbembe (2001) finds jokes to be one of the popular forms of exposing ‘the hollowness of state power’ (Mbembe 1992: 6) by censuring those in power.

The literature has revealed nuanced effects of political humour. For example, exposure to political humour such as The XYZ Show, particularly among people who are detached from politics, can stimulate their interest in the subject, which eventually leads to seeking information. Tju (2000) argues that political jesting has been found to increase the prominence of concepts that occupy the core of political jokes. This means that individuals who often watch comedy involving a particular political candidate with multiple leadership flaws will be more likely to be influenced against that particular political candidate in the future election. Lyombe (2007) posits that people who are known to watch cartoons are more politically engaged in general, and more likely to discuss politics than people who have distaste for such shows. With regard to the subtle cognitive insinuations of political comedy, one of the reasons that political jesting has drawn the attention of scholars is that humour appears to hold a certain convincing capacity those other forms of discourse lack (Freud 1905/2002). The jesting license makes humour less likely to invite the counter-arguments that more formal and focused discourse would ordinarily attract.

The function of cartoons

If humour is less likely to incite counter-arguments, what then are its functions? Humour helps people experience the full extent of their humanity as they reflect on their private and public lives. Freud (1905/2002) argues that one of the characteristics of humour is its potential to offend and rattle the conscience of its audience on particular urgent societal issues. When a joke appears to irritate its victim, it is referred to as ‘sick’ or it is said to be in ‘bad taste’ (Kuipers 2006: 119). Despite their irritation, most people would laugh at jokes nonetheless. Humour can also deflate and thereby humiliate the person to whom it is directed. If the victim of ridicule is absent during the performance of the joke, the joke is still performed because deflation does not merely target the explicit victim but also the implicit ones who may be part of the audience and the rest of the society.

Humour is an everyday human experience: a victim of police ruthlessness tells a funny story about his encounter with the police; a pupil mimes his incoherent teacher; a mad man attempts to milk a dog, and so on. This humour comes in the form of the spoken word or visual or both. Dundes (1987) posits that humour is a socially sanctioned outlet for engaging taboo issues. For his part, Mbembe argues that humour is not violent to a commandement’s¹ material base beyond creating ‘pockets of indiscipline on which the commandement may stub its toe’ (Mbembe 2001: 2). Whatever its purpose, humour offers an opportunity to reflect on important issues as it involves an interaction between the performer of the humour and the consumer of that humour. The use of latex characters in The XYZ Show is a humorous device that involves manipulation of language by a cast of extra-ordinary creations. The viewer is positioned to accept the amusement and enjoy it. The traditional convention of the comedy duo which comprises the straight guy and the fall guy still applies in this form of political satire. Dundes (1987) posits that ordinarily, the straight guy in a comedy duo avails probes to the more clownish counterpart, the fall guy, who is depicted as gullible. Examples of famous comedy duos include the filmography of American comic actors Laurel and Hardy, Abbott and Costello and the British Broadcasting Corporation’s ‘The Two Ronnies’. Contemporary comedy that involves puppet characters and the standup comedy appear to have overtaken – in terms of popularity – the foregoing twentieth century joke films.

Political puppet cartoons play several roles in public opinion. Some of their admirers exaggerate their importance while the cynics exaggerate their insignificance. Tju (2000) argues that cartoons may basically yield comic relief or fundamentally clarify major issues of public concern. Jokes, indeed, invite us to laugh as well as think. They are watched by millions of viewers who are actively involved in politics in one way or the other. Caricature cartoons can make people burst with laughter as they purposively blow out of proportion particular physical features of the real politicians they mimic. The laughter could also be due to the verbal, dramatic or situational irony that the latex characters reveal. The viewers will be entertained to see the exaggerated thick lips of President Uhuru Kenyatta and Martha Karua’s excessively long teeth as well as her big, unbatting eyes. Viewers are also entertained by the political gullibility of Musalia Mudavadi and the presidential dream of opposition leader Raila Odinga, blown out of proportion. Cartoons appear to borrow from the tactical doctrine of hit and run. They are influential and have a constituency of fans. Puppet cartoons have a special license for both provocative appearance and provocative statement of their target.

Joke puppet cartoons tend to follow a broad spectrum of territory between ridicule, where they make an important point through satire; and entertainment of viewers and listeners. Popular puppet cartoons will always strike a balance between satire and gags, for too much satire may disorientate the audience, who may feel targeted by it themselves. And it is in this balance that joke puppet cartoons make a heavy thrust in (re)imagining the postcolony. Hammett (2010) states that too many gags for entertainment waste people’s opportunity to do something worthwhile. Another thing that denigrates cartoons is whether they have any real effects. It is notable that rarely do political figures resign, apologize or change policy due to a particularly deprecating puppet cartoon. In a show of impunity the political class stays put even if there is a public outcry backed by satirical caricature against their excesses. Puppet cartoons are part of the public debate necessary for success in transforming public opinion.

However, there is evidence that cartoons can prick the most hardened and thick-skinned of the wayward politicians. In recent times President Uhuru Kenyatta and his Deputy President William Ruto have reduced the worth of newspapers to that of ‘wrapping meat’ in apparent anger at the unsettling accounts that newspapers, including their cartoons, give about the government. This means that political cartoons actually deliver their messages.

Political cartoons are a part of opinion-formation in modern democracies that enjoy an artist’s license to make comic criticisms of public figures and policies. Dodds (2007) argues that cartoons are used to provoke thought and comment from a generalist perspective, at times simplifying intricate issues to a single frame. Unlike other types of cartoon, political puppets have direct effects on public opinion. These types of cartoon can easily promote sensibilities toward political leaders and related institutions such as political parties and parliament which, in turn, pushes the leaders to be accountable. The voters develop an interest in politics and follow up on the activities of their political leaders, and eventually make an informed decision when the elections come. A cartoon can speak up for the ordinary, disorientated citizenry.

A cartoon merely tries as best as it might to suggest a point of view that might spark debate on a contemporary issue. A cartoon does not necessarily set out to be controversial but rather, it offers alternative ways of looking at a people’s reality. It helps to brainstorm on an issue of public concern. Because of their seemingly innocuous nature, the latex characters have a poet’s license to slip through guarded legal doctrines such as libel laws, unlike commentary journalism. Hammett (2010) posits that political cartoons appear to offer an alternative space for interrogating political figures and asking tough questions related to the rationale of every politician’s commissions and omissions.

For many years, political cartoons have not disappointed in terms of their effect on audiences of all backgrounds and generations. The latex characters have, however, updated the newspaper cartoons by bringing context closer to the audience. The audience is more engaged than ever due to the speech aspect and theatrical involvement of the characters. The caricatures are...