The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces

The temple in western India, 2nd century BCE–8th century CE

Susan Verma Mishra, Himanshu Prabha Ray

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN:
  9781138679207
• eBook ISBN:
  9781317194132
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Indian & South Asian History
• Index: History

This volume focuses on the religious shrine in western India as an institution of cultural integration in the period spanning 200 BCE to 800 CE. It presents an analysis of religious architecture at multiple levels, both temporal and spatial, and distinguishes it as a ritual instrument that integrates individuals and communities into a cultural fabric. The work shows how these structures emphasise on communication with a host of audiences such as the lay worshipper, the ritual specialist, the royalty and the elite as well as the artisan and the sculptor. It also examines religious imagery, inscriptions, traditional lore and Sanskrit literature.

The book will be of special interest to researchers and scholars of ancient Indian history, Hinduism, religious studies, architecture and South Asian studies.

1

Monumental remains

Defining sacred space

Certain areas on earth are more sacred than others, some on account of their situation, and others because of their sparkling waters, and others because of the association or habitation of saintly People.

(Mahābhārata Anuśāsana Parva 108: 16–18)

Throughout the ages, many cultures have conceived of geographic space and expressed those conceptions in a variety of ways. One expression of these conceptions has been the establishment of sacred geographies. These sacred geographies were demarcated with the creation of temples and other architectural markers. This chapter provides an overview of the sacred sites in Gujarat spanning from circa third century BCE to the eighth century CE. It aims to bring forth an ever expanding religious landscape in Gujarat and diversity in the architectural forms. Certain physical locations were deemed more important and carried a sacred meaning for religions and communities, and structures mark these spaces as sacred. Temples serve as a bridge between the sacred and the profane and are centres for religious experiences as abodes of the divine. It is through art and architecture that the sacred is represented. The aim will be not to focus on the art historical perspective of sacred architecture of Gujarat, but rather, to trace the expansion of sacred geography, diversity, concentration of sites over time within different areas of Gujarat and linkages within sites.

Period I: circa third century BCE to circa first century BCE/CE

The criteria for selection of this time frame as the first period is in the nature of the archaeological evidence. Though scanty, the evidence available indicates the beginnings of the demarcation of sacred space by communities in Gujarat through the construction of more or less permanent structures.

Hinduism

A combination of archaeological data and literary evidence indicates the existence of Hindu sacred sites at Dwarka, Somanatha and Padri. All the sites are located along the coast, within the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat. Dwarka and Somanatha are mentioned as sacred tirthas in the Mahabharata. Dwarka, famed as the city of Krishna, is mentioned as a sacred spot in the Mahabharata. ‘There is also Dvārāvatī which produces great merit and in which lives the slayer of Madhu’ (III, 88). One should go to Dwarka, as mentioned in the Mahabharata, with regulated diet and vows and one who bathes in the Pindaraka obtains the merit of giving away much gold and that Mahadeva is always present at this tirtha (III, 82). Excavations carried out at Dwarka revealed the existence of a temple (Temple I) dated to first century BCE to second century CE.¹ The excavations were carried out in the forecourt of the Dwarkadheesh temple, and Temples II (third–seventh century CE) and Temple III (eighth–twelfth century CE)² reveal the continued importance of this sacred site over the centuries and till date.

In the case of Somanatha, one has to rely solely on literary evidence as even though excavations reveal an early settlement at the site, there is no evidence for the early existence of a temple at the site. The story associated with Prabhasa (Somanatha) is that Soma married twenty-seven daughters of Daksa, and on account of his predilection for Rohini, the other wives complained to Daksa, who cursed Soma so that he was affected by phthisis. In order to get rid of the disease, Soma, on command of Daksa, proceeded to Sarasvati. He reached the greatest of tirthas, called Prabhasa, belonging to Sarasvati. After bathing here, he regained his effulgence, and hence, the place got its name Prabhasa (IX, 35).

In the Mahabharata, Prabhas Patan has been described as a sacred tirtha located on the coast of the sea (Vana Parva, Ch. 109). It mentions, ‘O Yudhistira, the brahmanas say that on the sea coast is Prabhasa – the tīrtha which is adored by the celestials’ (III, 880). Agni was always present at this tirtha, and those who bathe here with a subdued mind become pure and obtain the fruits of performing the Agnistoma sacrifice (III, 82). It is also mentioned as a tirtha, which is truly sacred, sin-destroying and a favourite place of Indra (III, 103).

A sacred site not mentioned in literary texts and containing evidence of an early shrine is Padri, located in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat, as discussed in the last chapter. Thus, while literary data bring forth the sanctity of Dwarka and Somanatha, archaeology proves the presence of sacred remains at Padri. From among the jars of the Harappan period found during excavations at the site, one of them has a painted figure with a horned head-dress, which has been identified as Pasupata.³ Dated to the early historical period, is a roughly oval structure with a number of post holes along its eastern periphery. The floor had two circular platforms in the northern and southern end with a diameter of 1.5 meters each. Two terracotta plaques of Lajjagauri were recovered from the adjoining area of this floor and it seems the structure had some religious significance.⁴ This structure has been identified as a temple dedicated to this goddess.⁵

All the three above-mentioned sites contain evidence of settlement from an early period dating to the Harappan and early Historical periods. Excavations at the site of the Dwarkadheesh temple revealed an occupational layer belonging to fourteenth–thirteenth centuries BCE with lustrous red ware and Harappan ware.⁶ The site seems to have been re-occupied in 900 BCE and continued up to 500 BCE.⁷ The third occupational layer corresponds to the second century BCE.⁸ In the period between 320 BCE and the first century CE, excavations brought to light red slipped ware, black ware, terracotta balls, and stoppers shell bangles, and iron. In Bet Dwarka was found an inscribed potsherd in Mauryan Brahmi, belonging to the same period,⁹ thus indicating trade contacts with northern India. Temple I was built some time later during this period.¹⁰ Similarly, excavations at the site of Prabhas Patan/Somanatha revealed occupational layers dating from an early period. Archaeological excavations at the site of Prabhas Patan reveal five cultural periods, starting from c. 2000–1800 BCE.¹¹ At Somanathapattana, the beginnings of historical settlement date to the fourth century BCE, but religious structures such as temples emerge at a somewhat later period, in the fifth and sixth centuries CE.¹²

Buddhism

The location of Buddhist sacred sites in the region demonstrates a different trend. The few sites in this period are located more in the hilly tracts, with the concentration being in and around the modern-day city of Junagadh. The Deccan trap in the central part of Saurashtra is exposed extensively and most prominent among these is the Girnar hill, which is 1,117 metres high and is the highest hill in Saurashtra, followed by the Barda hill, which is 637 metres high. It is these two hills and their terrain that provide us with structural data indicating the presence of a Buddhist community in Gujarat.

Located within the present city limits of Junagadh, the Bawa Pyara caves are carved out of a single separate rock and contain viharas and a caityagrha dating to the Mauryan period.¹³

The caityagrha had four pillars supporting a flat roof, and the cave itself is 6 metres wide and 1.5 metres deep, and has a nearly semi-circular apse on the west. The caityagrha has a verandah in front of it, from which two cells are entered into, one on each side of the principal hall. There are six pillars in the verandah and each has simha brackets to the roof, the façade of which has very crude caitya window ornaments. At each end of the verandah are winged simha carved in low relief on the walls.¹⁴

The other Buddhist site with vihara and dating to the Mauryan period is located in the Barda hills at Ghumli.¹⁵ The site is located in the interior region of Saurashtra, between the Vartu and Bhadar rivers in the district of Jamnagar. The Barda hills are called Bahrot by the local Warli community, and interestingly, the caves in these hills were also home to the holy fire, the ‘Iranshah Fire’, of the Parsis for 12 years, which they carried with them from Sanjan, when the city was burnt by the Arabs, as has been recorded in the Kiss e Sanjan (authorship is recorded as 969 YZ or 1599 CE, and in its conclusion, the story is signed by a Parsi priest named Bahman Kaikobad or ‘Bahman Kaikobad Hamjiar Sanjana’).

Figure 1.1
Bawa Pyara caves

Figure 1.2
Interior chamber of Bawa Pyara cave

The Buddhist caves are plain and devoid of much sculptural details and their simplicity suggests the main purpose of these was to accommodate the Buddhist monks during the retreat season. These caves lack evidence to suggest their utilisation as sites for ritual purposes or w...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Preface
• Introduction
• 1. Monumental remains: defining sacred space
• 2. Sacred sites and settlement sites
• 3. Religious icons in Gujarat
• 4. Shared space and multiple affiliations
• 5. Religious processes, rituals and pilgrimage
• 6. Gujarat in context
• Bibliography
• Index