Biopolymers and Biomaterials

Aneesa Padinjakkara, Aparna Thankappan, Fernando Gomes Souza, Jr., Sabu Thomas, Aneesa Padinjakkara, Aparna Thankappan, Fernando Gomes Souza, Jr., Sabu Thomas

• Publisher: Apple Academic Press
• Year: 2018
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351666909
• Subtopic: Chemistry
• Index: Chemistry

Biopolymers are attracting immense attention of late because of their diverse applications that can address growing environmental concerns and energy demands. The development of various biomaterials creates significant advancements in the medical field as well, and many biopolymers are used for the fabrication of biomaterials. Together, biopolymers and biomaterials create great potential for new materials, applications, and uses.

This new volume, Biopolymers and Biomaterials, covers the science and application of biopolymers and biomaterials. It presents an array of different studies on biopolymers and biomaterials, along with their results, interpretation, and the conclusions arrived at through investigations. It includes biopolymer synthesis, their characterizations, and their potential applications.

The book begins with an explanation of the different biopolymers used in the textile industry, their advantages and disadvantages, and their applications.

CHAPTER 1

BIOPOLYMERS IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

ASIM KUMAR ROY CHOUDHURY

Retired Professor and HOD (Textile) Government College of Engineering & Textile Technology, Serampore, Hooghly 712201, West Bengal, India, E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

Abstract

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Merits and Demerits

1.3 Application of Biopolymers

1.4 Methods of Manufacture

1.5 Classification of Biopolymers

1.6 Important Biopolymers

1.7 Conclusion

Keywords

References

ABSTRACT

Textile fibres, the basic raw material for textile manufacturing, are not inherently green. Though some of them are biodegradable, more biodegradable polymers can be made by biological means. Biopolymers often have a well-defined structure. In contrast, most synthetic polymers possesses much simpler and more random (or stochastic) structure.

Biodegradable polymers have achieved a position of great interest in recent years mainly due to biomedical applications. Biodegradable polymers break down in physiological environments by macromolecular chain scission into smaller fragments, and ultimately into simple stable end products. In recent years, the use of biopolymers, i.e. fibres and plastics made from corn, sugar, starch and other renewable raw materials, has expanded.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

With advances in chemistry, technological progress and the growth of material science, a new class of synthesized or manmade materials, called polymers or plastics, has been introduced. Polymers or plastics are found everywhere in our world and used in everyday life in a wide range of applications such as textile, food packaging, automobiles, electronics, building materials and furniture on account of their remarkable performances. In terms of properties, polymers are generally lighter than glass, metals or ceramics, can be rigid or flexible and opaque or fully transparent. Most of the plastics used worldwide are still made from petroleum, a nonrenewable resource. These petroleum-based polymers are extremely resistant to natural decomposition. Consequently after using, they accumulate and damage the environment and the ecosystem. The lack of biodegradability, environmental concern and the depletion of the oil have promoted worldwide research to develop biopolymers, bio-based and biodegradable polymers, as an alternative to petroleum-based plastics.

The biopolymers have been considered since 1940s; Henry Ford used soya plastic to construct various car parts in an effort to demonstrate his belief that ‘farms are the factories of the future’. Biopolymers are produced by biological systems (i.e. microorganisms, plants and animals) or are chemically synthesized from biological starting materials (e.g. sugars, starch, natural fats or oils etc.). They are more biodegradable than vegetable or animal-derived natural fibres. Biopolymers account for just over 1% of polymers by 2015.⁶ However, the expected growth is 3–4 times in the coming 7–8 years.

The term ‘biopolymers’ is loosely defined as polymeric materials consisting, at least a significant part, of biological components, in which ‘biological’ means (recently) produced by living organisms, that is not produced from petroleum. Biopolymers can be thermoplastic or thermoset; they can also be composites or homogeneous and biodegradable or not.

A definition for biopolymers, sometimes found in patent literature, is based on the amount of ‘modern carbon’ that needs to be present in a biopolymer. ‘Modern carbon’ is defined in the ASTM D6866 standard, and it is the carbon that contains a specific minimum amount of the carbon-14 isotope. In this way, it can be proven that the carbon in the material is not from fossil origin.³

Biopolymers have been known since the dawn of civilization—leather, cotton, wool, natural rubber and cork are all biopolymers. Although these materials are still popular for specific applications, most polymeric materials those being used today are synthetic and are based on the petroleum-derived resources.

In recent years, the research and development of biopolymers have been gaining significant momentum, driven by ‘green chemistry’ and sustainability principles that are increasingly adapted in the industry. The increased research and development of renewable energy sources, specifically of biofuels such as bioethanol which is produced from grains or biomass and biodiesel which is produced from plant oils, also drive the development of biopolymers. By reacting plant oils with methanol, biodiesel, for example, is produced. This results in fatty acid methylesters, which is the actual biodiesel, and large amounts of glycerol as a by-product. The glycerol can be converted to di-functional compounds, which in turn can be used as monomers in biopolymer production.

Although some biopolymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA), are already becoming regular as ‘green’ and biodegradable packaging materials, whereas other biopolymers are more esoteric. An example is BioSteel™ which is a protein fibre produced from milk of goats that had been genetically modified with spider silk genes. The polymers are reportedly up to 10 times stronger than steel for the same weight.³

1.2 MERITS AND DEMERITS

Biopolymers slowly enter various polymer markets, namely textile, plastic and so forth. Their advantages are sometimes shadowed by their disadvantages, at least, at the present state of development. Before selecting a biopolymer for a particular end use, both merits and demerits are to be carefully considered.

1.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF BIOPOLYMERS

• They are fully bio-based.

• Much lower ‘oil (petroleum)’ is needed for production.

• Lower amount of greenhouse gases is emitted during their production. Ingeo^® (PLA from NatureWorks) requires 60% less greenhouse gases and 50% less nonrenewable energy than other polymers.⁵

1.2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF BIOPOLYMERS

• The competition for biological sources for use as food and fuel

• Additional sorting during recycling to avoid contamination

• Performance still inferior to oil-based polymers—poorer heat and moisture resistance

1.3 APPLICATION OF BIOPOLYMERS

An increasing trend for biopolymer production and application is being seen due to environmental awareness in the past years and eco-friendliness of biopolymers. In the textile sector, due to insufficient mechanical properties of the biopolymers, they occupy a relatively low market share compared to conventional polymers, challenges during polymer processing and their higher price. The production of biopolymers (commonly known as bioplastics) is continuously increasing and recorded as 1.5 million tons in 2012, which is expected to reach to 6.7 million metric tons in 2018.⁷

The use of bio-based products has increased at a steady pace in the last decade. In 2005, they accounted for 7% of global sales and around US $ 77 billion (£ 49 billion) in value within the chemical sector. It is estimated that by 2020, the global market for bio-based products will reach to US $ 250 billion (£ 158 billion); and by 2030, one-third of chemicals and materials will be produced from biological sources, including biopolymers and bioplastics.

Various factors influence the production, growth of market and utilization of biopolymers worldwide, such as the convenience of their production and processability methods, properties, cost, biocompatibility and their dependence from foodstuff-based raw materials. The interest and acceptance of customers for biopolymer products are affected by these factors, and with that the decision of polymer producers to actively introduce biopolymers in the market are also influenced. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 represent the worldwide consumption (in percentage) of various biopolymers in 2013 and consumption (in 1000 t) of biopolymers in various applications in 2011, respectively.¹

FIGURE 1.1 Worldwide consumption (%) of various biopolymers in 2013.

FIGURE 1.2 Worldwide consumption (in 1000 t) of biopolymers in different applications in 2011.

Biopolymers have versatile applications. A few are mentioned below:

• Drug-delivery systems (medical field)

• Wound closure and healing products (medical field)

• Surgical implant devices (medical field)

• Bioresorbable scaffolds for tissue engineering

• Food containers, soil retention sheeting, agriculture film, waste bags and packaging material in general

• Nonwoven biopolymers can also be used in agriculture, filtration, hygiene and protective clothing.

The following biopolymers have high potential for various applications:

• Starch-based polymers (packaging)

• Polylactide acid

• Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)/Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

• (co)PA—(castor oil based—PA11)

• Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and biopolyester-based copolymers

• Polyethylene furanoate (PEF)—alternative for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), made from two building blocks: furandicarboxylic acid and monoethylene glycol

Although biomaterials made from proteins, polysaccharides and synthetic biopolymers are preferred, they lack the mechanical properties and stability in aqueous environments necessary for medical applications. Cross-linking improves the properties of the biomaterials, but most cross-linkers either cause undesirable changes to the functionality of the biopolymers or result in cytotoxicity. Glutaraldehyde, the most widely used cross-linking agent, is difficult to handle and contradictory views have been ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• About the Editors
• 1. Biopolymers in the Textile Industry
• 2. Importance of Wood Preservation: An Indian Overview
• 3. Cashew Nut Shell Liquid-Based Advanced Functional Materials
• 4. Synthesis and Characterization of Cashew Nut Shell Liquid Matrix Compositions for Composites Applications
• 5. Synthetic Approach for Polyurethane from Renewable Materials (Cashew Nut Husk Tannin)
• 6. Recycling of Textile Mill (Cellulosic) Waste into Carboxymethyl Cellulose for Textile Printing
• 7. Sustainable Noise Control Materials Based on Bamboo/ Unsaturated Polyester Composites: Analysis of Factors Affecting the Sound Absorption Coefficients
• 8. Morphological and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Chemically Treated Bauhinia Racemosa/Glass Fibre Polymer Composites
• 9. Optimization of Plasma Modification for Low-Temperature Dyeing of Silk Fabric
• 10. Partial Replacement of Carbon Black by Rice Hulls and Soy Short Fibres as Fillers in Natural Rubber Composites: Effect on Mechanical Properties
• 11. Bio-Resins and Bioplastics Synthesized from Agricultural Products for Novel Applications: The Indian Projection
• 12. Mechanical Properties of Sandwich Composites Made Using Natural Fibres and Glass Fibre Mat
• 13. Fabrication and Characterization of Composite Membrane of Cross-Linked Polyvinyl Alcohol and Hydroxyapatite for Tissue Engineering
• 14. In Situ Nanosilver-Immobilized Chitosan/Oxidized Carboxymethylcellulose Blend Dressings for Wound Management
• 15. Synthesis and Characterization of Biodegradable Polyether Urethane for the Purpose of Controlled Release of Antibiotics
• 16. Biodegradation Study of Polyurethane for Therapeutic Applications
• 17. Microscopy and Spectroscopy Characterization of Eco-Friendly Composites and Nanocomposites
• 18. Nanotechnology for Smart and Intelligent Food Packaging
• Index