Allies at the End of Empire

Loyalists, Nationalists and the Cold War, 1945-76

David M. Anderson, Daniel Branch

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• eBook ISBN: 9781351664646
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

The wars of decolonization fought by European colonial powers after 1945 had their origins in the fraught history of imperial domination, but were framed and shaped by the emerging politics of the Cold War. In all the counter-insurgencies mounted against armed nationalist risings in this period, the European colonial powers employed locally recruited militias – styled as 'loyalists' – to fight their 'dirty wars'.

These loyalist histories have been neglected in the nationalist narratives that have dominated the post-decolonization landscape, and this book offers the first comparative assessment of the role played by these allies at the end of empire. Their experience illuminates the deeper ambiguities of the decolonization story: some loyalists were subjected to vengeful violence at liberation; others actually claimed the victory for themselves and seized control of the emergent state; while others still maintained a role as fighting units into the Cold War. The overlap between the history of decolonization and the emergence of the Cold War is a central theme in the studies presented here. The collection discusses the categorization of these 'irregular auxiliary' forces after 1945, and presents seven case studies from five European colonialisms, covering nine former colonies – Portugal (Angola), the Netherlands (Indonesia), France (Algeria), Belgium (Congo) and Britain (Cyprus, Kenya, Aden, South Yemen and Oman). This book was originally published as a special issue of the International History Review.

Irregular Auxiliaries after 1945

Sibylle Scheipers

ABSTRACT

Collaboration with native auxiliaries in wars in the peripheries of the international system is an age-old practice, the relevance of which is likely to increase in the twenty-first century. Yet, the parameters of such collaboration are understudied. This article aims to contribute to the nascent yet fragmentary scholarship on the use of native auxiliaries. It identifies three intellectual templates of the collaboration between Western regular forces and native auxiliaries: the eighteenth-century model of auxiliary ‘partisans’ as tactical complements to regular armed forces; the nineteenth-century transformation of the ‘partisan’ into the irregular guerrilla fighter and the concomitant rise of the ‘martial races’ discourse; and, finally, the post-1945 model of the loyalist auxiliary as a symbol of the political legitimacy of the counter-insurgent side in wars of decolonisation and post-colonial insurgencies. The article focuses on the rise of loyalism after 1945 in particular, a phenomenon that it seeks to understand within the broader context of irregular warfare and the moral reappraisal of irregular fighters after the Second World War.

Native auxiliaries in counter-insurgency campaigns and colonial warfare are an understudied topic, in spite of their central relevance to Western warfare in the peripheries of the international system.¹ There are only a handful of scholarly articles available on this topic, a number of which remain at the surface of the debate by focusing solely on the tactical and operational potentials and pitfalls of the use of native auxiliaries.² Few take into account the broader strategic, political, moral, and legal implications of co-operating with such forces.³

This lack of scholarship is both surprising and worrying when viewed against the background of recent and current military conflicts. Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and again Iraq/Syria, but also Russia’s reliance on separatist rebels in eastern Ukraine, have demonstrated that the co-operation between Western military forces and native auxiliaries is likely to play a dominant role, at least in the near future. Yet Western strategic thinking on the ways in which native auxiliaries can be integrated into military operations, how they can be supported and trained if necessary, remains poor. There is little understanding of the different models and templates of the structure and organisation of such collaboration, with the result that the way in which auxiliaries are employed has often unintended, if to some extent foreseeable, consequences.⁴

This article aims to reinvigorate the nascent, yet still highly fragmentary debate on native auxiliaries by investigating the historical trajectory of the relationship between regular forces and local fighters. It outlines three intellectual templates of their collaboration, which roughly correspond to three different historical phases, though the boundaries between these phases are not clear-cut, and earlier templates often survived into, or were revived during, later phases. The first template is the eighteenth-century model of the native auxiliary as an ethnic irregular fighter and tactical complement to regular armed forces. Historically, these fighters were called ‘partisans’. The second template covers the marginalisation of ‘partisans’ as illegitimate combatants and their concomitant, yet paradoxical reinvention in the form of ‘martial races’. The latter formed the core of late-nineteenth and early twentieth-century colonial armies, which became increasingly regularised and integrated into the European military-command structures. The third template consists of the rise of native loyalist auxiliaries after 1945. Loyalism in this context is not to be understood as a description of the ‘true’ motives of the auxiliaries in question. Rather, ‘loyalism’ functioned as a strategic and political narrative that constructed a specific relationship between sponsors and auxiliaries. This narrative could be manipulated by both sides to a certain extent; auxiliaries could pursue their own agendas under the guise of ‘loyalism’, just as well as sponsors could promote or drop ‘loyalist’ auxiliaries for opportunistic motives. Nonetheless, the narrative of loyalism provided certain constraints on legitimate behaviour by both sides, as we shall see. For instance, if particular auxiliaries were evidently coerced into supporting their sponsors’ military efforts, sponsors usually refrained from trying to depict them as ‘loyalists’, since such an effort would have lacked credibility.

The rise of loyalist auxiliaries represents a departure from the earlier trend towards the increasing regularisation of colonial troops. They were deliberately set apart from regular armed forces and often stayed outside of the regular military command structures. Their military effectiveness was limited as a result of poor training and armament. In fact, the main motive for their recruitment was political rather than military, in that they were designed as symbol of legitimacy of Western political power in the peripheries of the international system after 1945.

These three intellectual templates help us understand and categorise patterns in which native auxiliaries were used in the past and today. While the transformation around 1800 from ‘partisans’ to ‘guerrilla fighters’ has received some attention over the past few years, much less has been written about the rise of loyalism after 1945.⁵ This is the area that this article will focus on in particular. Its main argument is that the Second World War led to a moral reappraisal of the role of irregular fighters in that it epitomised the lesson that as resistance fighters against Nazi German and Imperial Japanese occupation, they could be morally vindicated. Indeed, in the context of colonial and post-colonial wars after 1945, to the extent that they could be harnessed to the political agendas of colonial powers or their successors as loyalist auxiliaries, they could become the foundation of claims to political legitimacy on the part of the imperial powers in these conflicts.

The historical evolution of military auxiliaries makes it inherently difficult to define them. Nonetheless a definition is needed. For the purpose of this paper, military auxiliaries are defined as military forces that support the military efforts of regular armed forces of a state. They are hence distinct from regular armies. At the same time, they are distinct from proxies, which are defined as receiving merely indirect support from third parties with the aim of furthering the latter’s strategic interest.⁶

The remainder of this article proceeds in four steps: the next section presents a brief outline of the history of the native auxiliary fighter from around 1750 to 1945, hence covering both the first and the second intellectual template mentioned above. The second part is devoted to the rise of loyalist auxiliaries in the wars of decolonisation. The third section will evaluate the rise of loyalism in the context of the history of irregular warfare after 1945. The conclusion will summarise the argument and explore its relevance for the context of wars in the twenty-first century.

I. The transformation of the partisan, 1750–1945

The practice of relying on military auxiliaries is as old as warfare itself. However, it was only when European armed forces became increasingly ‘regularised’ that military auxiliaries were referred to as actors different from regular armed forces. By the eighteenth century monarchs in Europe had successfully increased their control over their armies. However, paradoxically it had become increasingly difficult for them to use those armies to wage war. The average size of European armies had more than doubled between the mid-seventeenth and the early eighteenth centuries. Mobilising for major war slowed down economic production and inevitably put a strain on state finances. Communication capabilities had not grown in equal measure as the size of armies, hence limiting the radius of their campaigns. Tactical limitations meant that battles were often costly, but rarely decisive.⁷ In these circumstances reliance on small mobile units of light infantry and light cavalry provided European states with increased room for manoeuvre. These units could either serve alongside regular units and take on tasks that regular forces struggled with, such as reconnaissance, or they could operate independently.⁸ They were something akin to early-modern Special Forces.⁹ The names of these units often reflected their ethnic origin: the Habsburg Empire relied on ‘Pandours’ and ‘Croats’ who stemmed from the border region with the Ottoman Empire; Russia used ‘Cossacks’; and Bavaria and Prussia ‘Hussars’. The overall notion for these light infantry and cavalry detachments was ‘parties’ in French or ‘Partheyen’ in German. Their members were called ‘partisans’.¹⁰

While these practices originated in Europe, they were soon applied in colonial warfare. During the French and Indian War (1754–63) both France and Britain recruited Native American auxiliaries to support their own forces. This was, of course, a common practice in colonial warfare. However, in the French and Indian War contemporaries perceived native auxiliaries not only as a supplement to their own forces. Rather, they saw them as a decisive asset. British commander-in-chief Lord Loudoun remarked in 1756 that: ‘Whoever is Superior in irregulars [Native American auxiliaries] has an infinite advantage over the other side; and must greatly weaken, if not totally destroy them before they can get to the Point where they can make their Push.’¹¹

The turn of the eighteenth to the nineteenth century was a ‘watershed’ moment for the European ‘partisan’ auxiliaries. The notion of the ‘partisan’ was subject to a fundamental transformation.¹² With the French Revolution and the concomitant nationalisation of war in Europe, the term ‘partisan’ came to designate counter-revolutionary rebels. The tactical meaning of la petite guerre gave way to the notion of people’s war or guerrilla warfare, two terms that were burdened with issues of political legitimacy. The denunciation of ‘partisans’ and guerrilla fighters was based on a complex interplay of perceptions that included claims that their way of fighting was abhorrent, that they were fighting for the wrong motives and that they had no right to take up arms. At first glance, this transformative process was paradoxical: after all, with the nationalisation of war even regular warfare had to a certain extent evolved into ‘people’s war’. The rhetoric of the French Revolution depicted the Army of the French Revolution as the ‘nation in arms’ rushing to the defence of the fatherland. If the counter-revolutionary rebels in the Vendée and the guerrilla fighters in the Peninsular War, to name but two examples from the era of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, were also claiming to fight on behalf of the ‘people’ (if not necessarily the ‘nation’) it was difficult to see why they were less legitimate than the ‘nation in arms’. Yet, it was precisely this ambiguity with respect to the intellectual roots of both the nationalisation of European armed forces and popular uprisings against the authority of the nation-state (or the occupation forces of another state) that made the condemnation of rebels and guerrillas necessary.¹³

The marginalisation of irregular fighters and their denunciation as illegitimate combatants remained the defining theme of warfare in both Europe and North America throughout the nineteenth century. Although European powers had hoped that the issue of people’s war had been an aberration to which the era of restoration after 1815 had put a definitive end, people’s war cropped up again in the Germa...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Citation Information
• Notes on Contributors
• Introduction: Allies at the End of Empire—Loyalists, Nationalists and the Cold War, 1945–76
• 1. Irregular Auxiliaries after 1945
• 2. ‘Gathered on the Point of a Bayonet’: the Negara Pasundan and the Colonial Defence of Indonesia, 1946–50
• 3. Making the Loyalist Bargain: Surrender, Amnesty and Impunity in Kenya’s Decolonization, 1952–63
• 4. Toads and Informers: How the British Treated their Collaborators during the Cyprus Emergency, 1955–9
• 5. Reprisal Violence and the Harkis in French Algeria, 1962
• 6. The suppression of the Congo rebellions and the rise of Mobutu, 1963–5
• 7. Saved by the Civil War: African ‘Loyalists’ in the Portuguese Armed Forces and Angola’s Transition to Independence
• 8. Out of Arabia: British Strategy and the Fate of Local Forces in Aden, South Yemen, and Oman, 1967–76
• Index