Prophets as Performers

Biblical Performance Criticism and Israel's Prophets

Jeanette Mathews

• Publisher: Cascade Books
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9781532685521, 9781532685538
• eBook ISBN: 9781532685545
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblical Studies

The biblical prophets and Biblical Performance Criticism are brought together in three case studies (Elijah, Ezekiel, Jonah) presented as performances. This book proposes a new method of reading the biblical prophets with a threefold focus on creativity, commentary, and connections. With this method the many and varied performances of the prophets can be better appreciated. Critical analysis of the quintessentially performative nature of the prophets as embodied spokespersons for YHWH aids us in understanding and clarifying YHWH's message to audiences, situations, and communities of the past as well as engaging contemporary audiences.

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Israel’s Prophets—An Introduction and Overview of Research

Any book on Israel’s prophets must begin by answering some basic questions relating to prophecy. Who were Israel’s prophets, and what was their role in society? Did prophecy change over time? What is the relationship between the phenomenon of prophecy and the writings that came to be known as the prophetic literature? The first part of this chapter will address these questions.

Because this book proposes a new lens for approaching the prophetic literature, it will be helpful to provide an overview of interpretive approaches to the prophetic literature in both ancient times and more recently. I present this information in broad brushstrokes, bearing in mind that there are many fine introductions to the prophetic literature.11 I direct readers to my bibliography for helpful recent books and articles that have informed this chapter.12

Who Were Israel’s Prophets?

The simplest way to describe a biblical prophet is as someone who functioned as an intermediary between the human and divine worlds. They were charismatic individuals, both men and women, gifted to both receive and impart divine messages. Jewish tradition referred to forty-eight prophets and seven prophetesses, whose prophecies contained a lesson for future generations and thus were recorded.13 A few non-Israelites were also recognized as prophets in the Talmud, such as Balaam (Num 22–24) and Job. The term “intermediary” stresses the two-way nature of the prophet’s relationship with God. They received messages that were imparted to the human community but are often recorded as interceding on behalf of the community, or questioning the message, even arguing with God.

The Hebrew term נָבִיא (nāviʾ) and its feminine counterpart נְבִיאָה (neviʾāh) are possibly cognates of the Akkadian verb nabû, “to call,” giving the meaning “one who has been called.” This term came to be the standard term for classical prophets, and is the Hebrew word that is translated by the Greek word prophētēs, from which the English terms “prophet” and “prophetess” come.

Other terms used somewhat interchangeably in the Hebrew Bible areחֹזֶה (ḥōzeh) and רֹאֶה (rōʾeh), both meaning “seer,” and אישׁ הָאֱלֹהִים (ʾiš hā-ʾĕlōhîm), translated “man of God.” First Chronicles 29:29 names the three prophets connected to David’s court as Samuel the רֹאֶה (rōʾeh), Nathan the נָבִיא (nāviʾ), and Gad the חֹזֶה (ḥōzeh). חֹזֶה (ḥōzeh) is used most commonly in connection to the royal court (2 Sam 24:11//1 Chr 21:9; 1 Chr 25:5; 2 Chr 9:29; 12:15; 19:2; 33:18) so may have been the technical term for court prophets, but verses that use the term in parallel with נָבִיא (nāviʾ) (2 Sam 24:11; 2 Kgs 17:13; Isa 29:10) show that there is some fluidity in the way the titles were used.

In Israel’s story, Abraham was the first person designated a prophet (נָבִיא, nāviʾ) because of his role as an intercessor on behalf of King Abimelech of Gerar (Gen 20:7); but Moses is portrayed as the one who instituted the office of prophecy (Deut 18:15–19). According to the narrative of Deuteronomy, members of the exodus community were afraid to approach God directly and asked for a go-between who would stand between them and the divine presence, conveying the messages of God to them (Deut 5:22–27).

Despite my description of prophets as charismatic “individuals,” the text also refers to groups or bands of prophets, including the phrase “sons of the prophets,” translated in the NRSV as “a company of prophets” (1 Kgs 20:35; 2 Kgs 2:3; 4:38; 5:22; 6:1; 9:1). Most of these references are from the Elisha narratives where Elisha is referred to as their “father,” translated in the NRSV as “master.” The presence of groups of prophets seems to be more characteristic of early prophetic forms described in the Deuteronomistic History. Reference to Deborah as a prophetess (Judg 4:4) and information from comparative ancient Near Eastern studies suggest that prophets were connected to sanctuaries where they functioned as intermediaries and were consulted at times of military conflict. The story of Balaam (Num 22–24) indicates a role for prophets in pronouncing curses against foreign enemies. The bands of prophets mentioned in the books of Samuel and Kings are connected with the traditions of war against the Philistines. The establishment of monarchy in Israel also resulted in the introduction of court prophets, as mentioned above. In the Hebrew Bible prophecy and monarchy are so closely connected that some scholars argue prophecy ended with the demise of the Judean monarchy. The texts seem to make a distinction between professional prophets and independent figures working in isolation from official structures and critical of the state cult and officials. Nonetheless, the isolation of the prophet should not be emphasized too strongly in light of the toleration and acceptance implied in the fact that oracles were delivered in public areas and recorded, preserved, and reworked for future generations.

What Characterized Israel’s Prophets?

If the etymology of the term נָבִיא (nāviʾ) as “called” is correct, the impetus for becoming a prophet or prophetess came from outside the individual. Another term that could be used is that the person is chosen, often against their will, to convey God’s message regardless of whether it will be received or not by their intended audience. Indeed, the typical formula for a “prophetic call narrative” includes resistance to the call. This was not an easy role, yet it is portrayed as a privilege because the prophet had access to the presence of God and the divine council, and an insight into the mind of God.

For some prophetic books we have very little information about who the prophet was, conveying the sense that the prophet’s role is of more interest than their biography. And yet, the prophets were not puppets. They retained their freedom, even to the point of engaging with God in challenging the message they were given. They were not philosophers or even theologians speaking about God. They were mediators conveying the message of God in their own speech and actions. It is significant that in the biblical prophetic traditions the prophets did not lose their individuality. The prophetic record reflects unique styles. There is great variety in how messages are conveyed: through poetry, prayers, sermons, pronouncements, drinking songs, symbolic performances, dirges, legal pronouncements, and other literary and performative genres.

Although the biblical emphasis is on the word of God as the source of prophecy, it is clear that dreams, visions, the working of wonders, and symbolic acts are all part of the prophetic repertoire. We even occasionally read of divinatory practices common to prophecy in other ancient Near East cultures and generally condemned in the Torah.14

This book has a particular interest in the performance of prophets, and many introductory books and essays acknowledge that dramatic acts were an important part of the prophet’s role. Thus Shalom Paul and David Sperling note:

[The prophets] often performed symbolic acts, which dramatized and concretized the spoken word. Though the dynamism of the spoken word is considered to have a creative effect in and of itself, it is given further confirmation by this act, which is efficacious and actually plays a role in bringing about the event.15

The messages that the prophets conveyed generally involved exhorting their audience to live consistently with the Torah, whether it be kings who had ceased trusting in God’s ability to protect them or members of the community who were not ...

Table of contents

• Title Page
• Acknowledgments
• Abbreviations
• Introduction
• 1. Israel’s Prophets—An Introduction and Overview of Research
• 2. A Review of Performance Critical Approaches to Prophetic Literature
• 3. Reading Israel’s Prophets via Biblical Performance Criticism
• 4. Case Study 1: Elijah
• 5. Case Study 2: Ezekiel 1–11
• 6. Case Study 3: Jonah
• Concluding Reflections
• Bibliography