India-China Comparative Research
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India-China Comparative Research

Technology and Science for Development

Erik Baark, Jon Sigurdson, Erik Baark, Jon Sigurdson

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eBook - ePub

India-China Comparative Research

Technology and Science for Development

Erik Baark, Jon Sigurdson, Erik Baark, Jon Sigurdson

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About This Book

The need to study the effects of technology and science in development has been increasingly emphasized in recent years. At the same time, India and China have emerged on the world scene as large developing countries with rich, often contrasting, experiences of the application of technology and science to development. Comparative research on the Indian and Chinese experiences thus carries a great potential for a further elucidation of this subject. This book, first published in 1981, is intended to provide a basis for further research in this direction.

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Information

Publisher
Routledge
Year
2017
ISBN
9781351862493
Topic
History
Edition
1

Studies on Technology and Science in India and China: Prospects and Methodology

Erik Baark
This paper discusses the questions relating to the role of technology and science in development. As the symposium Technology in Development: The Cases of India and China addressed itself to these questions, it was revealed that comparative research on the experiences of India and China would present significant contributions on this issue. Therefore I will summarize here the proposals for future research areas presented at the symposium, and discuss theoretical and practical problems connected with comparative research on India and China.1

1. Technology and Science in Development

In the decades which have elapsed since the Second World War, researchers in social and political science have shown an increased interest in problems connected with development. Technology, in its conception as the systematic use of all technical knowledge, methods and operations in the control of nature, has been increasingly recognized as one of the most important elements in the development process. Technological modernization can justifiably be considered to be the most important element in the growth of developing economies, and the debate on development has thus increasingly centred on the role of technology in the modernization of developing economies.2
In addition, science has been recognized as a crucial factor in technological development. An advanced scientific establishment in developing countries appears to be one of the prerequisites for industrialization in the modern sense of the word. In most of the less developed countries, an independent scientific and technological base is lacking, and this problem can be seen as one of the major hindrances for modernization of the economies of these countries.
In the international debate on development, the role of technology and science in the development process has been the subject of a number of studies. These studies have approached the issue from a variety of conceptual frameworks and have suggested alternative solutions to the problems created by the introduction of modern technologies in developing countries. In this debate one can identify a number of central concepts which have been widely discussed during recent years.
The divergence between the socio-economic contexts in which modern technologies appear is the basis for one influential school of thought. By adopting the concept of appropriate technologies, the proponents of this school seek to call attention to the problems created by an uncritical transfer of technology from advanced countries to developing countries. Two problems are particularly noteworthy: first, capital-intensive, advanced technologies will often be inappropriate in the economies of developing countries, which lack the necessary capital; secondly, advanced technologies are usually not appropriate in the context of the labour-abundant developing economy. Labour-intensive technologies which do not demand large amounts of capital are therefore ā€˜appropriateā€™ in developing economies, and a more critical choice of technologies is proposed.
Another concept which has been widely discussed in recent times is self-reliance. When discussing this concept, certain development theorists have proposed that developing economies should go through a period of isolation from the international market in order to be able to establish a ā€˜self-reliantā€™ basis for technological development. The reason for proposing such a strategy can be found in the unequal economic conditions between advanced and less developed countries. This inequality has had the effect that developing countries often rely to a large extent on foreign enterprise in their own economies. In many cases this foreign influence, even if it may contribute to economic growth in the developing country as such, works in ways detrimental to the establishment of an indigenous base for technology and science. The self-reliant strategy of development is thus regarded as an effective means to counteract this foreign influence.
A third viewpoint which has become influential lately is that economic growth should be coupled with equity in order to be successful. In the concept of technology for basic human needs, the technology employed in developing countries should preferably be ordered to serve the needs of the population at large. The experience of many countries in the Third World indicates that roughly the opposite is the case: that economic and technological progress is used to benefit a limited, already privileged, stratum of society. Through the concept of technology for basic human needs, a strategy for technological and scientific development is proposed which could serve to alleviate the widespread poverty of the unprivileged strata of society.
Many of these new concepts have been applied in empirical research as well as in development programmes all over the world. Among the participants at the symposium, however, it was felt that comparative studies of India and China could provide a basis for further examination of the practical and theoretical implications of these concepts. One reason is that a number of the concepts mentioned above have been incorporated in the development strategies of both India and China. Another reason can be found in the similarities in macro-economic conditions of the two countries on the one hand, and the differences in approaches in development strategy on the other hand. An interesting aspect of the role of technology and science in development in India and China is the relationship between the particular social and political contexts of these countries and the development strategies chosen. The symposium led to the conclusion that India-China comparative research could be a valuable instrument for the attainment of a deeper understanding of the role of technology and science in development.

2. An Agenda for India-China Comparative Research

A selective bibliography was compiled in connection with the symposium where a list of India-China comparisons was included.3 The compilers lamented the fact that ā€˜literature on India-China comparative analysis is in short supply1, and when a stock-taking survey of this literature was made for the present volume (see Chapter VI), it appeared that the field of India-China comparative research is biased in several respects.
The subjects most frequently treated in recent India-China comparative research appear to be comparative economic performance, studies in development strategies, and rural issues. When one notes that, in addition, most of this research has been carried out by Indian scholars, one is left with the impression that comparisons between India and China are made chiefly with reference to political issues in India. While this bias is obviously rooted in a genuine concern over the advantages of the Indian or the Chinese model of development, the purpose of the symposium was to call attention to a different aspect of India-China comparisons. This aspect is the promotion of a deeper understanding of the role of technology and science in development, not only in India and China but in all developing countries.
Therefore, a number of new research areas were proposed by the participants, and this section will attempt to delineate these research areas and their possible contributions to India-China comparative research.

a. Political conditions

Science and technology must be studied in the political contexts of both countries, as the fate of scientific and technological development is likely to depend on the policies adopted. Bjƶrn Hettneā€™s paper on development strategies (included in this volume) provides an example of an analysis of political conditions. The paper compares the role of different political lines in the formulation of development strategies. Through his analysis of the dialectical evolution of policies on development issues in India and China, Hettne provides a detailed picture of the political conditions in which development has taken place.
While for instance Hettneā€™s analysis gives an outline of the process of policy formulation in India and China, comparative studies of policy implementation appear to have been neglected so far. Particularly with reference to science policy, a discrepancy between the political goals formulated by governments and the actual implementation carried out by local authorities has presented serious problems in developing countries. Neither India nor China appear to be exceptions in this regard. Comparative research on the implementation of policies on technology and science in India and China is a vital element in the correct assessment of these policies.

b. Social conditions

The political contexts of science and technology strategies are embedded in the context of the social structures of both countries.. In a comparative perspective, the social structures of a country may influence the technological and scientific developments. Comparative research on social structures in India and China can thus be considered essential for the specific studies of issues related to technology and science. For example, a comparison of social structures within units of similar size in the two countries - e.g. villages - is a necessary prerequisite to studies on the effects of technology transfer. In the debate on the role of technology in development, the opinion has been voiced that the question of political and financial influence is most crucial for the successful introduction of modern technologies. One typical example is the differences which appear when modern agricultural technology is adopted by various, rural social units. Some forms of agricultural machinery will be inaccessible to small farmers, but may be profitable to large landowners - and cooperatives organized by small farmers!
At the symposium it was suggested that the social context of technology and science in India and China could be analysed by means of comparative research on the class structure in these countries. This could incorporate a theory of the contradictions between social classes, a description of the ways in which social classes recognize and formulate their interests, and possibly a theory of class hegemony over state power. While the heterogenity of both societies must be recognized, comparative research on class structure and power relations in India and China is likely to facilitate an increased understanding of the social context for technological and scientific development.

c. Economic conditions

Social structures in India and China are relevant factors in the composition of a very important element in India-China comparisons: the economic conditions for development. In the experience of many developing countries, the introduction of advanced technology and science has placed severe strains on the national economy. India and China have the potential, as large nations, to devote considerable resources to technological and scientific development; but this potential may be exploited in different ways due to social and political factors.
One way to attack this complex problem is to make a comparative study of capital accumulation in India and China. The socio-economic structure of each country is likely to have a decisive influence on the pattern and effectiveness of capital accumulation in the economy. Thus, several programmes for social change in India and China have been motivated by economic efficiency. Units such as the Peopleā€™s Communes in China and Community Development in India can be regarded as instruments to promote capital accumulation in the rural economy.
On the other hand, allocation of resources is an equally rewarding area for India-China comparative research. Policies on technological and scientific development are linked with the ability, within a developing economy, to allocate capital to this purpose. The establishment of scientific and educational institutions, for instance, depends to a considerable degree on available resources. A phenomenon like ā€˜mass scienceā€™ in China indicates that inexpensive, local scientific networks can be a solution to the problem of limited resources. The question of resource-allocation processes is also linked to the question of class interests mentioned above. In this area of research, a comparative study of the formulation and effects of economic planning is likely to present interesting results.
Finally, the questions of employment and labour mobilization are significant among the economic conditions for development. These questions seem to apply in particular to predominantly rural economies. Therefore, comparative research is essential on the Indian and Chinese experience with, for instance, labour-intensive technologies.

d. International conditions

The nature of world technological development is unfortunately such that the greater part of modern technology is situated in the industrialized countries. In addition, most of the prerequisites for further development of existing and new technologies are also found in these countries. Consequently a developing country is obliged to engage in a bargain on the world market for the technology it needs, and usually this bargain is conducted on the basis of conditions set by the industrialized countries. The effect is often that foreign influence on the developing economy becomes a major constraint to the independent formulation of a development policy.
India and China have approached this problem in entirely different ways during the last three decades. India has generally been more open to foreign investment, while China has insisted on varying degrees of isolation from the international market. In both countries, however, the concept of self-reliance has been frequently used in connection with development policies. In India, restrictions on foreign activities have been limited by an adherence to the principles of liberal capitalism and democracy. In China, on the contrary, self-reliance has at times implied virtual isolation from the world market. Although this subject has been treated in many comparisons between India and China, only a few of these have been devoted to the effects of these strategies on technology and science.
Finally, it was suggested at the symposium that comparative research on India and China as recipients or donors of technology would be valuable. The Soviet Union has, at different times, supplied technology to both China and India. If the effects of the introduction of Soviet technology are compared in India and China, this study could present an interesting case-study of India and China as recipients of technology. On the otherhand, both have supplied technology to Tanzania, and a comparative study of India and China as donors of technology might cast more light on an essential question: whether Indian or Chinese adaptations of Western technology might be more appropriate for developing economies generally.

e. Case studies

The preceding sections have outlined some of the important research areas in relation to conditioning factors. But suggestions were also made at the symposium regarding some case studies in technological and scientific areas where India-China comparisons might prove particularly valuable.
A paper by Richard Conroy included in this volume serves to illustrate the value of a case study in an aspect of technology in India and China. This paper analyses the development and performance of the industrial sector producing instruments for laboratories and factories in each country. It is concluded that the development of this science-based industrial sector has been significantly dependent on political and economical strategies in India and China. The study thus indicates the conditions for technological development, and the effects of these conditions, for a key industrial branch in the developing economy.
A number of research fields in technology and science will be outlined below; it should be noted, however, that these represent only a fraction of the potentially relevant study areas.
1. Education. The importance of education for research and development has often been recognized, and a few comparative studies of India and China have been devoted to this issue. However, most of this research has been concerned with higher education, training of scientists, and so on; some of the fundamental areas in education for widespread technical change have been largely neglected. This is the case, for instance, with vocational training fo...

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