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Development Ethics
Asuncion Lera St. Clair, Des Gasper, Des Gasper
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Development Ethics
Asuncion Lera St. Clair, Des Gasper, Des Gasper
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About This Book
The traditional definition of development ethics considers the 'ethical and value questions posed by development theory, planning and practice' (Goulet 1977: 5). The field parallels the traditional question of ethics 'How ought one to live as an individual?' by asking in addition 'How ought a society exist and move into the future?' This interdisciplinary field is well represented by a substantial collection of previously-published articles and papers. The volume illustrates a wide range of academic and practitioner writings on the theories and concepts of development ethics as well as ethical development policy and practice.
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Part I
The Field of Development Ethics: History and Agenda
[1]
THE INVENTION OF DEVELOPMENT
A mankind which no longer knows want will begin to have an inkling of the delusory, futile nature of all the arrangements hitherto made to escape want, which used wealth to reproduce want on a larger scale.(Adorno 1993 [1951]: 156â7)
INTRODUCTION
âDevelopmentâ has been called the central organizing concept of our time. The United Nations has its development agencies, and the World Bank takes development as part of its official name â the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Hundreds and thousands of people are in developmentâs employ and billions are spent each year in its pursuit. It would be difficult to find a single nation-state in the North which does not have its departments or ministries of local, regional and international development. Nor can any Third World nation expect to be taken seriously without the development label prominently displayed on some part of its governmental anatomy.
What is development? This question is often posed in the initial stages of books or courses on âdevelopment studies,â but is rarely coherently answered. Rather the reader or student is told that development means different things to different people. The authors or lecturers then move rapidly on to a discussion of âthe development debate.â As they proceed, the issue of what, precisely, development is grows even murkier. While the student may initially be informed that development is about the betterment of human kind through the alleviation of poverty and the realization of human potential, he or she quickly discovers that there also exists âgoodâ and âbadâ development, as well as âunderâ and âoverâ development. Development can be âautonomous,â âappropriate,â âgender-conscious,â âsustainable,â or the opposite of all these and much else besides. Which words are used seems to depend upon the views and policies of those in positions of authority in universities, national governments and international agencies. Even critics of development policies affirm, in the very act of criticism, developmentâs existence.
Development thus defies definition, although not for a want of definitions on offer. One recent development studies text, notably entitled Managing Development (Staudt 1991), advances âseven of hundreds of definitions of development.â Development is construed as âa process of enlarging peopleâs choicesâ; of enhancing âparticipatory democratic processesâ and the âability of people to have a say in the decisions that shape their livesâ; of providing âhuman beings with the opportunity to develop their fullest potentialâ and of enabling the poor, women, and âfree independent peasantsâ to organize for themselves and work together. Simultaneously, development is defined as the means to âcarry out a nationâs development goalsâ and to promote economic growth, equity and national self-reliance (Staudt 1991: 28â9).
Here, quite typically, the distinction between development as an action and development as a goal of action is conflated with another important distinction. When, for example, someone mentions the âdevelopment of capitalismâ we take development to be an immanent and objective process. But when the same person says that it is desirable that state policy should achieve âsustainable development,â we are now told that there is a subjective course of action that can be undertaken in the name of development. This distinction, between development as an immanent process and an intentional practice, has been central to European theological and philosophical debate. In contemporary development texts it is often lost.
Staudt (1991) assumes that development can happen as the result of decision and choice. Yet, the question of how actions taken in the name of development relate to any preconceived end of development is unanswered. Furthermore, because development is both means and goal, the final outcome is routinely assumed to be present at the onset of the process of development. Thus, Staudt argues that the goal of development is to enlarge choice. Yet, for choice to be exercised, let alone enlarged, there must be desire and capacity to choose as well as knowledge of possible choices. Choice is as much a precondition for development as its result. Further confusion arises when Staudt ignores another distinction between, on the one hand, a state policy of development and, on the other, attempts to empower people through or indeed against the state in the name of development. Empowerment is merely another name for development and thus embodies all its difficulties.
During the nineteenth century, those who saw themselves as developed, believed that they could act to determine the process of development for others deemed less-developed. The development problem was thus resolved by the doctrine of âtrusteeship,â a doctrine which became central to the historical project of European empire. Now, in the late twentieth century, the âentrustingâ of the means of development to âthe developedâ has no conviction. As a doctrine, trusteeship is condemned as Eurocentrism, a vestige of the post-1945 attempt to improve the living standards of poor colonies and nations through external state administration. Development as trusteeship is taken to have no meaning for Third World countries. It has had its day and failed as an idea and a practice.
The period of development is now routinely assumed to be the span of imperial and post-colonial history since 1945. The subject of development is the imperial state (before and after political dismemberment); its object is colonial and Third World peoples. The recent Development Dictionary (Sachs 1992) informs us that âunderdevelopment beganâ on 20 January 1949, the day on which Truman called for a âbold new programâ for the improvement, growth and development of underdeveloped areas (Esteva 1992: 7). Five of the twenty essays in the Dictionary start with Trumanâs address and he is quoted at least ten times in the volume. Students are thus regularly instructed in the shallowness of developmentâs history. A good deal of the confusion surrounding development arises from this sort of exercise in historical truncation. This essay argues, on the contrary, that development is a state practice rooted in the nineteenth century.
By truncating developmentâs historical domain, we lose the crucial sense in which it emerged in the nineteenth century as a counterpoint to âprogress.â Development emerged to ameliorate the perceived chaos caused by progress. In many texts, the ideas of development and progress are seamlessly stitched together. There is little sense of a dynamic relationship between the two concepts (Harris 1989: 4â11; Thomas 1992: 7). In this chapter, we argue that the modern idea of development is necessarily Eurocentric because it was in Europe that development was first meant to create order out of the social disorder of rapid urbanization, poverty and unemployment. The story is of developmentâs failure â a failure which occurred long before its supposed mid-twentieth-century birth.
THE EUROPEAN SETTING
The doctrine of development was already old before Trumanâs invocation. For example, Bourdillon, the British Governor of Nigeria, addressing the Royal Empire Society in London in 1937, stated that âthe exploitation theory ⊠is dead and the development theory has taken its placeâ (quoted in Cowen and Shenton 1991: 165). Nearly a century before, Robert Chambers (1969 [1844]: 360) wrote in his widely read anticipation of Darwin, The Natural History of the Vestiges of Creation, that âthe inorganic has one final comprehensive law, GRAVITATION. The organic, the other great department of mundane things, rests in like manner on one law and that is, DEVELOPMENT.â
By the early twentieth century, the idea of development was already well established in British thought. So was that of underdevelopment. Responding to Joseph Chamberlainâs injunction to develop Britainâs imperial estates in Africa, the Liberal Prime Minister, Campbell-Bannerman, put forward a project of his own, âto develop our underdeveloped estates in this country; to colonise to our own countryâ (quoted in Cowen and Shenton 1991: 147). Much earlier, John Henry (Cardinal) Newman, a contemporary of Robert Chambers, writing in a field totally remote from the concerns of late twentieth-century developers, had begun to define the modern idea of underdevelopment. The concept emerged as part of a theory of development in Newmanâs 1845 âEssay on the Development of Christian Doctrineâ (Newman, 1992[1845]), which, the historian Acton said, âdid more than any other book of the time to make the English âthink historically,â to watch the process as well as the resultâ (quoted in Chadwick 1957: ix). Although concerned with the development of Christian doctrine, Newmanâs book had a far wider influence. Pattison, a fellow cleric, wrote to Newman in 1878 that it was:
A remarkable thing that you should have first state the idea â and the word â development, as the key to the history of church doctrine, and since then it has gradually become the dominant idea of all history, biology, physics, and in short has metamorphosed our view of every science, and of all knowledge.(quoted in Chadwick 1957: ixâx)
Newmanâs argument encompassed both development and underdevelopment. Emphasizing that history moved through âtrueâ developments, Newman believed that there were doctrines and practices which did not evolve in a manner that remained faithful to the originating concept. He called this âcorruptionâ and used it to distinguish between the true development and the perversion of religious doctrine. Newmanâs idea of corruption conveys much of the sense of decay and decomposition, of disarticulation and disintegration that is essential to the modern meaning of underdevelopment. In the history of Western thought, the idea of corruption as part of a theory of change long predates Newman. As Robert Nisbet (1969) has noted, it developed in classical times and was based on the life cycle of all living things. The growing and maturing organism deposits a seed to recreate life amidst its own decay and destruction. Applied to the history of the state, the metaphor predicted that periods of state building would lead to periods of âdisorderâ and âruinâ which were, in turn, the prerequisites for renewed political construction. Successful statecraft and the art of politics, as in the work of Machiavelli, aimed to prolong maturity and forestall degeneration. It could do no more. This older meaning of development expressed a dual character of change. Positive, constructive change emerged from negative moments of destruction and decay. Purposive human intervention could ameliorate and forestall but not prevent the destruction which was intrinsic to an ordered, determined and inevitable cyclical process.
The classical theory of cyclical change remained dominant until it was challenged by modern ideas of progress that began to emerge in work of thinkers from at least Fontenelle to Hegel more than a century later and that gradually but, not wholly, supplanted the concept of inevitable degeneration. The idea of progress also had Christian origins stemming from the doctrine of divine revelation in which Providence through history maps out a design in advance of human efforts (Brunner 1948; Baillie 1950; Wager 1967). Enlightenment thinkers constructed secular variants of this idea, giving autonomy to human purpose and proposing the prospect of unlimited improvement through unaided human effort.
It has become commonplace for those attempting to legitimize the supposed modern sub-discipline, development economics, to rummage through the writings of the Scottish Enlightenment, especially those of Adam Smith. These eighteenth-century writers are supposed to have come up with the first theory of development in their idea of human economic activity evolving through a series of stages, commencing with hunting and fishing, progressing through pastoralism and settled agriculture and culminating in commerce and manufacturing. As one commentator (Meek 1976: 255 quoted in Skinner 1982: 91) has suggested, âthe four stages, at any rate at the outset of its career, usually took the form of a theory of development embodying the idea of some ânaturalâ or ânormalâ movement through a succession of different modes of subsistence.â
The attempt by modern would-be developers to find the origins of their development practice in the Scottish Enlightenment requires a very selective reading of texts. Smith, like Locke, was fundamentally concerned with the Hobbesian problem of how social and political order might be maintained. In addressing the old idea of the inevitable corruption of the âbody economicâ Smith simultaneously, and perhaps unwittingly, held out the possibility of progress as a linear unfolding of the universal potential for human improvement which need not be recurrent, finite or reversible. In his Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Smith 1937[1776]), commonly seen as an eighteenth-century precursor of the modern âdevelopment debate,â Smith is credited with rejecting the classical view, that national wealth and power were subject to inevitable cycles of advance, decline and stagnation, replacing it with a ânew description of rich and poor countries interlocked in a system of free trade reflecting the realities of a changing world. He could see the possibilities of progress both for rich and poor countries offered by a system of natural liberty in foreign tradeâ (Hont 1983: 302). Yet, Smithâs optimism was immediately challenged by contemporaries who observed the political disorder that followed the French Revolution and the social disorder that accompanied the birth of industrial capitalism. In these grim facts, they found reasons to question the idea of boundless human improvement.
Although Thomas Malthusâ Essay on the Principle of Population (1986[1798]) is usually presented as an anodyne theory concerning the limits to the growth of population imposed by agriculture, his book, published in the wake of one of the first crises of industrial capitalism, presented primarily a moral argument. He used his theory of population growth to argue against the possibility of limitless social perfectibility. Malthus attacked Smithâs optimistic views about the possibility of unlimited human improvement. In particular, he challenged the idea that increases in societyâs wealth would necessarily bring improvement or happiness to every part of it. He argued that Smith had ânot stopped to take notice of those instances where the wealth of a society may incre...