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Introduction
The world over, civilizations have grown and flourished on the banks of rivers. Other factors, such as, climate, vegetation and geographical location have also contributed to this process. The notable ones among the ancient civilizations include the Egyptian, the Mesopotamian, the Harappan, the Chinese, the Roman and the Vedic that largely flourished in the time span of around 3000 BCE–1000 BCE. The Egyptian civilization thrived on the banks of the Nile River. The Tigris and the Euphrates rivers provided a lifeline to the Mesopotamian civilization. The Harappan civilization flourished along the River Indus. Huang Ho and Yangtze River similarly contributed significantly to the development of Chinese civilization during its early phase. The Tiber River also played a significant role in the development of Ancient Rome and its civilization (which legends put at 753 BCE) by providing a crucial route for trade and commerce. In India, too, her ancient civilization grew on the banks of the rivers. For the pastoral Vedic Aryans, proximity to the river was an important consideration for their own survival as well as the survival of their cattle herds. While the role of rivers is recognized in the growth of ancient civilizations, and that includes India as well, what, however, differentiates in India’s context, is certain sacredness and divinity attached to some of these rivers. In the other mythologies/folklore also, such as Celtic, Germanic, Ancient Greek, Japanese or Slavic, we know of water spirits/water deities associated with their folklore/traditions or some goddesses named as the protective deities of some of the rivers, such as Long Mu as the goddess of the Xijiang River or Ehuang and Nuying as the goddesses of the Xiang River, but perhaps, in none of these cases the river itself turns into a deity and acquires many iconographic forms.1 In India’s case, it is, however, different, as some of its rivers are described in its ancient scriptures as turning into holy entities with all the trappings that go with divinity.
The deferential approach towards rivers in India’s context, arises from the metaphysical concept of water in the Indian thought process where water is identified as a natural phenomenon, with healing and spiritual properties2 and the beginning of the world is conceived of as a vast expanse of water from which a golden germ emerges and from that germ an unknown deity is born, who takes the form of Prajapati, the Creator of this world.3 The role of water and its various manifestations are reflected in several hymns of the RV and the other Vedic texts, including the AV and the Brahmanas.4 The intimate connection of primordial water with the formation of the earth is also reflected in the Upanishads.5 There is an allusion to the origin of earth from water in the seventh chapter of the TS.6 The significance of water for the prosperity of cattle and as bestower of strength and power, health and wealth is also highlighted in the AV.7 Thus, in the Vedic texts, both the physical and primordial aspects of water are emphasized. Therefore, water has a special significance in Hindu cosmology and is not perceived purely in a material sense. This aligns well with the Indian thought process at two levels: first their innate belief in the personified powers of nature and identification of each of the gods and goddesses with a particular natural phenomenon; and second, perceiving the role of water in cosmogonic sense, such as the one reflected in the extended Vedic creation myth in Book VI of the SB or in Book X.82 of the RV where water is described as the recipient of the embryo that initiated the Creation process.
The ancient Indian texts are replete with gods and goddesses representing nature in different forms, who were invoked in various ways for receiving their benediction for a smooth sojourn during the course of worldly existence. This explains why the Indian mythology is so rich and varied in their content. This tradition has endured in Indian ethos from ancient times, and continues to be so. What has changed over these years, from ancient to modern times, is the focus, context and content of such invocations and the nature of ritual practices that go with them. Latent in these invocations, practiced in ancient times, we also witness evolution of cosmogonic features in the Indian thought process that was reflected in both the RV (X.129; X.72; X.90; X.121) and the Upanishads (CU, 6.2.1; TU 2.7). This raised the level of Indian consciousness and the concept of ‘religion’ went far beyond the paraphernalia associated with religious practices. The invocations to various gods and goddesses not only symbolized their prowess in bringing succour to common devotees but also served as a vehicle for ennobling the human mind for reaching the ultimate goal of self-realization. The description of the ‘Supreme Cosmic Spirit’ in the ancient texts as the embodiment of ‘Satya, Jnana and Ananta’8 amply demonstrates the cardinal values associated with the ‘Ultimate’ and how an earthly being can approximate the Brahman (the Absolute or the Supreme Cosmic Spirit) and attain liberation by pursuing the path of higher knowledge.
The RV is the earliest Vedic text, which was followed by other Vedic texts, including the SV, the YV and the AV. The Rig-Vedic hymns deal with sacrificial rituals and fire-cult and provide the earliest clue to the development of religious conceptions and understanding of the Indian mind. The SV is held as a book of chants to be sung during the course of sacrificial rituals and this collection is important from the perspective of canon formation. The Yajur-Vedic Samhita is a liturgical manual, interspersed with passages in prose and provides explanations for the guidance of the priests. These three Vedic texts initially constituted the sacred canon and were given the appellation of ‘Trayi-Vidya’ (three-fold knowledge). It was only later that, a fourth one, the AV was believed to have been added to the canon. While in parts, it has claim to greater antiquity, the bulk of its hymns deals with charms and spells and skills to overcome diseases and evil forces. The later Vedic texts, such as, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads, stand on a different footing. While the Brahmanas provide a comprehensive explanation to rituals, juxtaposing the sacred hymns with the performance of sacrificial rites, the Aranyakas dwell on the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice and consist of secret instructions imparted to the initiated, in the wilderness. The Upanishads, however, follow a different trajectory and embody philosophical speculation. They constitute, according to Santucci,9 ‘for the most part, discussions or dialogues on the true nature of reality, called either Brahman or Atman which underlie both the psycho-physical microcosm and the macrocosm’. Brian Black10 also holds the concept of atman (the Self) as central to the Upanishadic narratives, conjointly reflecting deep philosophical insight as well as a prescription for the conduct of one’s life.
As we traverse the vast expanse of ancient Indian literature, from the Vedas to the Upanishads, the Epics and the Puranas, one constant and striking feature is the marked presence of deities of various hues and forms being inextricably linked initially to the Aryan, and later the Hindu way of life. The relative importance of these deities waxed and waned in different timelines and this had much to do with how the Indian mind perceived the utility of these deities in steering the course of their life. It was, perhaps, a utilitarian approach for pursuing mundane pursuits and warding off evil portents duly supplemented by philosophical speculation that put these deities on a high pedestal. The poetic imagination invested these deities with an aura of a mighty being, capable of achieving unsurpassed feats, once invoked with devotion. This also led to building of many myths and legends around them in different timelines, which considerably impacted the ritualistic practices. The pastoral Aryans of the Rig-Vedic period also had to contend with the vagaries of nature as well as their adversaries, on their migration from the Central Asian region.11 This explains the worship of numerous gods and goddesses, each personifying nature’s power, in the RV. The Rig-Vedic hymns are dedicated to numerous deities, each invested with specified potency to deliver the desired results. Thus, Indra, the sky god, representing power, was seen as the most efficacious among these deities in dealing with the vagaries of nature and meeting the challenges emanating from the pre-existing adversaries. These characteristics entitled him to be celebrated as a god of thunder and slayer of demons. Agni, the fire god, assumes various forms, most importantly, as a link between men and gods and as a transmitter of the sacrifice to gods. Agni emerges as a critical feature for achieving the purpose behind the performance of Soma sacrifice and fire rituals. Varuna, another important god in the RV is seen as a harbinger of orderliness and as the Supreme upholder of ethical values, an important consideration in an otherwise chaotic tribal polity. Similarly, others like the Usha (the Dawn) as dispeller of darkness, the Maruts, representing storm, thunder and lightning, and the Asvins as the saviour and divine physicians, served specific purposes and also provided an escape route from the unsettling character of tribal existence. Besides Indra and Agni, Maruts, the Usha, other gods also feature in the RV, prominent among whom are Soma Pavamana, Aditya, Surya, Savitar, Pusan, and Visvedevas. Two other important gods of Hindu pantheon, Rudra and Vishnu, do not figure prominently in the RV and the reason for this, according to Keith12 is their disconnection with the Soma sacrifice,13 a central feature of the RV. These two deities, however, became very prominent in the later Vedic texts, such as the Brahmanas, and a number of myths surrounding Vishnu further enhanced his stature in the estimation of the priests and the people.
A brief discussion of the gods and goddesses in the Vedic literature, as above, leaves us with a legitimate question. Where does the River Sarasvati figure in these configurations and why is it important to appreciate the role of this river amongst the scores of deities which are integral to Hindu pantheon. It is not just the flow of this river, once a mighty one but now nearly extinct, but her material and spiritual dimension and the kind of reverence she evokes, which are enough to provide a rationale for a deeper study of her various manifestations. The River Sarasvati provides one of the best examples of the cosmogonic and material aspects of the Indian thought process. Her celestial origin is reflected in Book V hymn 43.11 of the RV where she is called upon from high heaven to attend sacrifice. Here her cosmic aspect is emphasized. Her physical and material aspects are similarly, evident from her description in the RV as a mighty river, and as a bestower of bounties and happiness as also for her healing properties. Thus, she embodies both celestial and terrestrial attributes. Further, her recognition as a deity is also reflected in her depiction in various iconographic forms. Hymn 75 of Book X of the RV outlines the names of rivers where Sarasvati features prominently.14 The Vedas and the Brahmanas and the later texts, tell the story of Sarasvati’s transformation from a physical river to a river goddess and then acquiring many other manifestations of divinity such as, a goddess of speech, knowledge, arts and culture. It was only after Sarasvati, that the other great rivers flowing in the north, east and the south of the country, such as, the Ganges, the Yamuna, the Narmada, etc. whose presence is noted in ancient texts, were also worshipped in some form or the other and their benediction sought for specific or general well-being. The importance of these rivers in sustaining human life and serving as the nucleus for the development of India’s ancient civilization and culture can not be overemphasized.
This study, precisely, attempts to explore the various assets and manifestations of Sarasvati. The portrayal of Sarasvati in the Vedic and Puranic texts focuses on her three aspects: as a sacred river; as a river goddess who confers bounties and happiness and as a goddess of speech, learning, fine arts and music. The Epics and the Puranas also magnify these aspects of Sarasvati but lace them with many more myths and legends. These ancient texts be...
