Leadership in Sports Coaching

A Social Identity Approach

Paul Cummins, Ian O'Boyle, Tony Cassidy

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2017
• eBook ISBN: 9781351971751
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Leadership
• Index: Business

The professionalisation of sports coaching has demanded higher standards of leadership in order to improve performance and effectiveness. This book focuses on leadership in sports coaching, exploring key concepts and principles underpinned by a presentation of new empirical research. Placing social identity theory at its centre – a theory not previously applied to sports coaching – this book provides students and researchers with a powerful tool for understanding the complex social dynamic that is the coaching process.

Its chapters cover all the central aspects of sports coaching, including leadership style, measuring effectiveness, motivation, confidence and team self-esteem. Chapters explore different coaching environments to investigate the extent to which social identity impacts on coaching and leadership. A ground-breaking contribution to this field of research, this book demonstrates the significance of social identity theory in sport for athletes, coaches and leaders.

Leadership in Sports Coaching: A social identity approach is an illuminating read for any student or researcher with an interest in coaching theory, coaching practice, sport psychology, sport leadership or sport management.

Chapter 1

Introduction

People naturally classify themselves and others into social categories or groups in order to make sense of the world. Group life affects how we engage with others, such that our social identities (group memberships) form a lens through which we evaluate our own and others’ behaviours. From exploring the minimal conditions for group discrimination to understanding how group memberships enable individuals to achieve positive self-esteem, the social identity tradition has been a dominant force in general social psychology. Only recently have researchers begun to explore social identity principles in sport and exercise settings. A gap exists in the sports coaching leadership literature, calling for a model of leadership that accurately encompasses the complex social dynamic that is the sports coaching leadership process. A recent systematic review of the sports coaching leadership literature (Vella et al. 2010) revised and presented a new definition of sports coaching leadership. It illustrated the existing gap between the current understanding of sports coaching leadership and the complex social process that is leadership in sports coaching. The current book builds upon Vella et al.’s conclusions and investigates the existing gap through the application of a social identity leadership model to sports coaching. Coaching leadership is a complex social process. It is possible that coaches with a deep understanding of their team’s social identity, and how to leverage this knowledge within the context of their team, may prove to be more effective leaders.

This research book applies a social identity leadership perspective to the sports coaching domain. The overarching research question, ‘Does a relationship(s) exist between perceived social identity levels and sports coaching leadership effectiveness within the team sport domain?’ is applied to the group-level leadership processes inherently present within the team sports coaching context. Then, a number of more discrete foci will sum up the overall objectives of this research. As this line of investigation is still considered novel within the research domain, the most effective contribution that it can make is at a baseline level which future research can then build upon. Quantitative methodology was considered the most appropriate manner of exploring these research objectives.

Three quantitative studies were conducted in a staged process using a number of athlete and coach data samples to a) develop a measure of social identity for the sports coaching domain (n = 271), b) confirm the measure factor structures using separate purposive data (n = 351) and to examine the relationships between social identity (team and coach), sport motivation, sport confidence and coaching competence, and c) assess social identity with regards to athlete evaluations of coaches across a large data sample (n = 622). Performance team sport athletes (n = 622) above the age of 18 from a range of different sports (n = 18; soccer, Gaelic football, hurling, camogie, golf, field hockey, tennis, fencing, track, swimming, rugby, netball, volleyball, basketball, American football, lacrosse, baseball and softball), talent levels (recreational, club, collegiate, provincial, international and professional) and countries (Ireland, UK, USA and New Zealand) participated in this research. Factor analysis, structural equation modelling, reliability analysis, internal consistency testing, and mediation analysis techniques were used to identify, assess and compare measures within all data samples in order to present valid and reliable findings.

The current research demonstrates that a social identity theory of leadership can be applied to the sport coaching field and, furthermore, that high coach and team social identity is positively related to coaching performance outcomes such as sport motivation, sport confidence, coaching competency and coach evaluations. The large participant ‘sports team performance’ sample and the representative wide range of sport cultures, sports and athlete skill level, served to inform a wider sport coaching domain. Implications for future research will be discussed and research limitations presented. There is a need to develop a sport-oriented framework, adapted and logically formulated from general psychological theories and related literature, to study sport-specific issues in leadership such as coaching performance. The social identity leadership approach provides a starting point for research that can, in turn, provide novel corroborations or identity falsifications to extend and/or tighten the model.

Within sport psychology an important area of contemporary research is recognizing what makes an effective coach. Throughout the last ten years, researchers have recognized the potential of drawing on leadership research and endeavoured to apply a range of leadership theories and perspectives to an analysis of coaching behaviour and coaching style, with varying success. Very recently leadership theory has taken a new direction with the development of a social identity (SI) theory of leadership (Haslam et al. 2011) – a theory that has not previously been applied to coaching. In social and applied psychology more generally, SI theory has generated a wealth of evidence. Sports coaching literature lacks a leadership model that successfully encompasses the complex social dynamic that is the sports coaching process. An SI theory of leadership may be the tool needed to bridge this gap in understanding. This book aims to address the issue by presenting a research programme using quantitative methods. An exploration of the potential for an SI theory of leadership to be usefully applicable to understanding sports coaching effectiveness requires a measure of SI within the sport domain. Thus, the first stage in the research programme involves developing such a measure. The existence of some SI measures within the organizational psychology literature provided a starting point in this endeavour.

The core aim is to explore SI levels within team sports and assess these levels in relation to measures of coaching effectiveness. In order to pursue this aim, this research book presents tools for measuring SI within the sport coaching domain and measures to assess coaching effectiveness. Valid and reliable SI measures exist within the organizational setting and thus the authors developed a measure of SI suitable for use within the sports coaching setting. Three quantitative studies are presented as part of this research programme in a staged process using a number of athlete data samples to:

a    develop a measure of social identity for the sports coaching domain in order to test its internal consistency and its relationship with sport motivation, confidence and team self-esteem;

b    further confirm the factor structure and reliability of the measure and to test its relationship with coaching competence (in addition to aforementioned coaching effectiveness variables) across a large data sample; and

c    assess SI with regards to athlete evaluations of coaches across a large data sample.

Structure of the book

Chapter 2 presents an analysis of some of the relevant literature surrounding sport coaching effectiveness and leadership. This analysis suggests that leadership theories are the most fruitful way forward in understanding coach effectiveness.

Chapter 3 explores the psychology of leadership, leading the reader to the SI perspective which is seen as a ‘new psychology of leadership’ (Haslam et al. 2011). The SI theory of leadership is examined from a theoretical viewpoint, with an emphasis on the intricate processes involved (e.g. self-categorization, positive distinctiveness, depersonalization, and proto-typicality) and how these influence positive group outcomes. The key components required to embody effective SI leadership are then presented and the foundation is set for why and how the SI theory of leadership can make a valuable contribution to the sport coaching domain.

Introducing the first empirical-based element of the book, Chapter 4 reports on the development of an SI measure. The aim of this study was to develop and test measures that could be employed in further exploring the utility of an SI theory of leadership in sport coaching. A pool of 51 items was administered to 271 sport and exercise science students, (191 males and 80 females) aged 17 to 41, along with measures of sport motivation, sport confidence and collective self-esteem. Principal component analysis (PCA) produced a ten-item coach social identity scale (CSIS), and a ten-item team social identity scale (TSIS). The study provides initial data on reliability and validity of the scales, as reliability and validity should never be assumed as fixed and should be tested every time a scale is used (Anastasi and Urbina 1997). Both the CSIS and the TSIS are potentially useful measures with which to explore the role of social identity in coaching. The model was a good fit for the data suggesting that SI (both coach and team) predicts collective esteem. The model also shows that collective self-esteem positively impacts levels of sport motivation and sport confidence and mediates the relationship with social identity. The study provides encouraging evidence for the positive implications coach and team social identity may have in the sport coaching domain.

Chapter 5 discusses the impact of SI on a number of key issues involved in sport coaching leadership. The aim of this study was to a) to provide confirmatory evidence on the coach and team SI scales in a sample of 351 team athletes (215 males and 181 females) aged 18 to 34, drawn from a range of team sports, and b) to test a path model in which both coach and team social identity were hypothesized to predict perceived coach competence, sport motivation, and sport confidence. A confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS was calculated to assess the fit of the CSIS and the TSIS and the results confirm the factor structure of both scales. Reliability analysis and a range of psychometric properties in line with Lamping et al. (2002) provide good support for both scales. Structural equation modelling was then utilized to test the model of the effects of SI (coach and team) on athlete perceptions of coach competence, sport motivation and sport confidence.

Chapter 6 explores how SI can be a key factor in coach evaluations. The aim of the third study was to a) develop and test a measure of coach evaluation, and b) to further test the predictive power of coach and team SI on evaluations of the coach, and on sport motivation and sport confidence. Principal components analysis identified a three-factor structure for the coach evaluation scale (CES) from a large athlete data sample combined from Study 1 and 2 (n = 622). The three factors identified were labelled Positive Coach, Respected Coach and Negative Coach. The CSIS, TSIS, sport confidence (CSCI) and sport motivation (SMS) were then assessed in relation to the CES. It was proposed that CSIS and TSIS would predict CES, CSCI and SMS, and the impact on CSCI and SMS would be mediated by CES. Results confirmed that the model was a very good fit for the data.

Chapter 7 synthesizes the theoretical outcomes from the reported empirical investigations and, following this, chapter 8 explores the potential implications for both practice and further research while also acting as a concluding chapter and final summary of the book.

References

Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. (1997) Psychological Testing, 7th edn, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Haslam, S. A., Reicher, S. and Platow, M. J. (2011) The New Psychology of Leadership: Identity, Influence, and Power, Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

Lamping, D. L., Schroter, S., Marquis, P., Marrel, A., Duprat-Lomon, I. and Sagnier, P. P. (2002) ‘The community-acquired pneumonia symptom questionnaire: a new patient-based outcome measure to evaluate symptoms in patients with community-acquired pneumonia’, Chest, 122(3): 920–929.

Chapter 2

Coaching effectiveness and leadership: a theoretical perspective

Coaching effectiveness is inherently related to the coach’s skill as a leader, and coach leadership is defined as a behavioural process that is used to increase athlete performance and satisfaction (Chelladurai and Riemer 1998; Riemer 2007). Thus, much research attention has been given to coach behaviours in the quest to understand what makes some coaches more effective than others. This section explores coaching effectiveness, demonstrates the non-sport research influences utilized to help understand coach effectiveness, and presents coach behaviours that have been deemed debilitative (non-effective) and facilitative (effective) within the sports coaching domain.

Horn (2008) specified an outline of the antecedent factors that determine coach behaviour and how coach behaviour can affect the performance and psychological growth of athletes. The primary assumption underlying the research on coaching effectiveness is that coaches’ behaviour can have a significant effect (either positive or negative) on athletes’ performance as well as their psychological and emotional well-being.

Horn’s (2008) work reflects past research in coaching effectiveness, and emphasizes three major assumptions: a) coaches’ behaviour in the athletic context does not occur in a vacuum, b) coaches’ behaviour in the athletic context has both a direct and indirect effect on athletes’ performance and behaviour, and c) the effectiveness of distinct coaching styles and associated behaviours are mediated by both situational and individual difference variables.

The first point mirrors previous models by Chelladurai (1978, 1980, 1990) and Smoll and Smith (1989) and refers to how identifiable antecedent factors such as coach characteristics, expectations, goals, the sociocultural context and the organizational climate will lead to the types of behaviours exhibited by coaches in sport settings. The second assumption is similar to Smoll and Smith’s model in that athletes may perceive coach behaviour in a personalized way, and it is these subjective perceptions that indirectly affect athletes’ self-perceptions, beliefs and attitudes (e.g. self-confidence, self-esteem, attributional beliefs and perceptions of competence), which in turn ‘impact motivation levels and ultimately their performance and behaviour’ (Horn 2008: 244). The final point once again is founded in Chelladurai’s and Smoll and Smith’s models in that a variety of sport contextual variables (e.g. competitive level, sport type) and athlete variables (e.g. age, skill level) can mediate the direct link between coach behaviour and athlete performance and behaviour. Along similar lines, athletes’ personal characteristics and the sociocultural context can serve to mediate their perceptions of their coaches’ behaviour.

Horn (2008) was in agreement with recent research in effective coaching and leadership in sport stating that simply one set of coaching behaviours will not prove effective for all athletes in all sport contexts and that going forward we should recognize that effective coaching behaviours will vary as a function of the athlete and the sport context. In researching coaching effectiveness within sport, it is clear that the literature has drawn from important theories in other contexts.

Facilitative coach behaviours versus detrimental coach behaviours

As Horn’s (2008) work on coaching effectiveness demonstrates, coaches’ expectancies, values, beliefs and goals are determined by three sets of interconnected factors: the sociocultural context, the organizational climate, and the coaches’ personal characteristics. The majority of research in the sports coach context has examined personal coach characteristics and the effect individual differences have on performance outcomes. Performance outcomes are measured not only in terms of win–loss percentages but also in terms of leading athlete psychosocial growth, self-actualization and personal development. A significant portion of past research has focused on the coaching styles and behaviours that are perceived to be facilitative, thus leading to athlete psychosocial growth and positive and detrimental performance outcomes.

Facilitative coach behaviours incorporate positive feedback, high levels of instruction, and leadership through autonomy-supportive means; establish a climate that reinforces skill-mastery above ego-involving achievements; and provide consistently fair feedback following both success and failure. This summary of behaviours can also operate as a framework that can help ensure that coaches are facilitative or debilitative.

Measuring sport coach behaviour

The sports coaching role automatically implies that the coach will act as a leader in some capacity and will be expected to demonstrate behaviour capable of positively influencing a collection of athletes comprising the sports team. The methods of influence and varied behaviours utilized by a coach can be attributed to their leadership tendencies and, more importantly, the outcomes of their leadership approach will determine the level of leadership effectiveness ascribed to that indi...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of illustrations
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Coaching effectiveness and leadership: a theoretical perspective
• 3. A social identity theory of leadership
• 4. Developing a social identify measure for leadership in sport coaching
• 5. The effects of social identity on coaching competence, sport motivation and sport confidence
• 6. Analysis of social identity on coach evaluations, sport motivation and sport confidence across a large athlete sample
• 7. Synthesizing the theoretical outcomes of investigating social identity
• 8. Research and practical implications
• The social identity scale 1: Athlete perceptions of coach
• Social identity scale 2: Athlete perceptions of team
• The coach evaluation scale
• Index