Professional Development and Institutional Needs

Gillian Trorey, Cedric Cullingford

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• eBook ISBN: 9781351908627
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Work
• Index: Social Sciences

The tension between institutional needs and those of the individual has rarely been higher. Increasing demands on institutions to deliver set targets and value for money whilst adhering to set expectations and external constraints has led to an erosion of the notion of staff development. This book looks at how the conflict between the two outlooks emerges and what can be done to overcome it. Based on empirical evidence, the authors reveal what is happening in a range of institutions and explore the tensions between the personal needs of the individual and the demands of managers. They examine the reasons behind the conflict and discuss what measures can be taken to overcome it. The book will provide a central text on an important but relatively neglected subject of interest to all engaged in the profession.

1	Introduction: Meeting the Needs of the Individual and the Institution GILLIAN TROREY

Though initially organizations are creatures of people, they tend over time to become separated from people, functioning independently in pursuit of their own goals and purposes. This has to be bridged somehow.

(Sergiovanni, 1997, p.232)

Professional development has assumed great importance in all sectors of education over the last few years. Facing both external and internal pressures, schools, colleges and higher education institutions have been forced to undergo rapid change. The focus on higher standards and improving quality and the demands of increasing accountability mean that teachers and lecturers have an unprecedented need for ongoing professional development.

Each sector now has standards or ‘competencies’ for the assessment of performance; performance managed pay is becoming a reality. We have the Teacher Training Agency and the General Teaching Council, the Further Education National Training Organisation and the Institute of Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, as well as more business orientated organisations such as Investors in People.

This situation results in many tensions. National priorities for teacher development, often with funding attached, may mean that the specific development needs of a school, department or faculty, or individuals within them, remain unaddressed. As schools and colleges and higher education departments or faculties have become responsible for their own resources, so staff development is increasingly managed at that level. Head teachers and departmental heads now have responsibility for balancing these external demands against those of their individual school or department, and the needs of their individual staff. One of the themes of this book is the recognition of these competing demands and the debate about ways of resolving them.

The demands for increased quality and public reporting and inspection have resulted, over the last decade, in a more business orientated or ‘managerialist’ culture. Placing emphasis on strategic development plans and corporate goals has resulted in a lack of recognition of the importance of individual development, a lack of recognition that the teacher or lecturer must be at the centre of any improvement drive. As long ago as 1988, Hewton pointed out that the introduction of school-focused staff development policies would either be seen as ‘a positive step towards greater professional autonomy’ or ‘as a management strategy to increase control and accountability’ (Hewton, 1988, quoted in Midwood, 1997, p. 186). The evidence arising from the research presented in this book suggests that staff in all sectors perceive the latter to be the case; there are concerns about the erosion of professional autonomy. Yet, unless teachers are involved in the processes of policy development and decision making, they are unlikely to be fully engaged in policy implementation (Bennett et al., 1992). If the policies relate to organisational effectiveness, then:

…effectiveness is a complex matter with no universally applicable prescriptions. It is often defined in terms of goal achievement – a school, or any other organization, is effective in so far as it fulfils its goals or objectives. This raises the problem of organizational goals – how far do schools and their staff have agreed and realistic goals which they attempt to achieve in practice?

(Preedy, 1993, p.1)

Staff development, professional development, personal and individual development are terms which are sometimes used interchangeably. Institutional development is more obvious; it refers to initiatives designed to develop the organisation as a whole, based on the needs perceived by senior management. It represents a ‘top-down’ approach, involving organisation-wide initiatives to which individuals conform. This can be a manifestation of staff development, involving the training of individuals in the skills and techniques seen as necessary for pursuing the aims of the institution. Professional development is used in a broader sense, frequently encompassing ‘all types of learning undertaken by teachers beyond the point of initial training’ (Craft, 2000, p.9). Generally this refers to the development of pedagogic knowledge and subject expertise with a view to the enhancement of student learning; it may also be related to career development and promotion prospects.

Personal development, on the other hand, may involve the development of abilities that would be useful to the individual in a variety of situations. For example, Butcher et al. (1997) identified four such ‘meta-abilities’: cognitive skills, self-knowledge, emotional resilience and personal drive. Individual development, although frequently used interchangeably with personal development, is here considered to be an approach that follows the interests of the individual, interests that have no obvious bearing on the role in the workplace.

In this book we argue that it is personal and individual development that is increasingly losing ground against organisational needs. Yet, as Butcher et al. believe, personal development that offers increasing self-knowledge and improvement of meta-abilities provides the fundamental basis for organisational development, as it encourages versatile, thinking professionals. Individual development, as defined above, would also seem irrelevant to organisational needs, but the width of experience and fresh perspectives gained can increase the flexibility of individuals and hence the capacity for change in an organisation.

Inevitably, any discussion about the balance between the needs of the individual and the organisation results in a debate about the role of head teachers or departmental heads, as integration of the two is a key management issue. Several of the chapters in this book explore the skills and personal attributes needed for the effective leadership of the complex organisations that schools and colleges represent. As Drucker (1988) argues, effective organisations are those that remain fully aware that the quality of management support has a direct influence on the performance of individual staff and in consequence, the contribution that these staff make to the organisation.

Chapters 2 and 3 begin by looking at the growth of ‘managerialist’ cultures in schools and further education respectively, and the effect that this has on the professionalism of teachers. In Chapter 2, Richard Pring traces the change in the balance of power and control between the state and the professional in education over the last forty years, from the professional as ‘all powerful’, through the ‘consumer choice’ of the 1980s and 1990s to the introduction of performance related pay. Professional independence has gradually been eroded, aided by a series of white papers which have resulted in a new ‘managerialism’. Thus, as he indicates, the language of education has become the language of business, with inputs and outputs, performance indicators and audits. The language of educational practice has been redefined, together with the moral context in which education takes place. Pring points out that the greater management control now exercised by government is a major, unrecognised shift which profoundly affects the nature and scope of continuing professional development. The question arises as to whether effective continuing professional development is possible within such a centrally controlled system.

Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Change, DfEE (1998) sets out a model of the teacher, in the form of National Standards. These, he argues, have resulted in a restriction in what we mean by education, and a consequent shift in what is meant by professional responsibility, professional judgement and professional development. What was defined as professional, in terms of personal development, is lost in this more limited picture of the teacher.

Whilst the impact of the notions of competence and accountability are visible in all educational institutions, there is no sector so much affected by change, both in financial terms and management control, as further education (FE). Since the incorporation of FE colleges as a result of the 1992 Further and Higher Education Act, they have had to adapt to a series of dramatic changes. Rapid shifts in emphasis, in expectation and outcomes on the one hand, and on styles of teaching and the diversity of client groups on the other, have seen the sector struggle to survive in the face of competition. This competition has been with overlaps of interest – schools and higher education – and more significantly, competition between individual institutions. FE staff have therefore been required to develop different skills, and the way that staff development is managed has also changed. In Chapter 3, Rachel Brooks gives an account of the changing emphasis of thinking about staff development and the demands of institutions in this volatile climate. She describes the changes in FE staff development from the introduction of formal staff development policies in the 1970s, through curriculum-based development, to the recent introduction of sector-wide standards for FE teachers.

Although there is little evidence that previous staff development arrangements were successful in meeting either individual or institutional needs, Brooks argues that incorporation and the new FE sector standards have had a major impact on professional development, and resulted in significant changes in the way that development needs are identified. Like Pring, she argues that the growth of a business or ‘managerialist’ culture has exacerbated differences between strategic and individual goals. The greater articulation of strategic goals and ‘mission statements’ by managers appears to be leading to a greater tension between lecturers and managers. Some lecturers feel that their professionalism is being threatened by quality controls which emphasise conformance to prescriptive and quantifiable requirements. Thus, institutional needs have become aligned with ‘managerialism’, and the maximisation of ‘output’, while the individual needs and goals of teaching staff are identified with ‘professionalism’.

However, Brooks suggests that there are ways of resolving this dilemma; instead of juxtaposing managerial and professional cultures, there is a possibility of finding ways to mediate between the two. She cites research which shows that middle managers in FE who have demonstrated strategic compliance in response to pressures from above can yet maintain professional values such as collegiality and student-focused care. Other research has identified areas where managerial initiatives can be harnessed to benefit professional groups as a whole, such as the shared evaluation of practice and mentoring.

In Chapter 4, Christopher Day examines the role played by Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in raising standards of teaching and learning. To be effective, developments in teaching and learning must be informed by an understanding of the ways in which teachers learn best. This in turn requires an understanding of teachers’ professional lives and working conditions. Day’s review of the current state of CPD finds short term instrumentalist ‘training models’ in place, frequently designed to ensure compliance with an externally initiated curriculum, or to meet demands for systemic improvement in teaching standards and student achievement. Other demands include quality audit and performance management systems such as Investors in People. These are necessarily concerned with organisational needs rather than individual, professional ones, and run the risk of further alienating overburdened teachers.

In the past, individual and organisational development needs have often been presented in an oppositional way. Managerial cultures have focused upon measuring the results of teaching and identifying key characteristics of ‘good’ teachers, resulting in a widespread downturn in morale. Research shows that teachers’ professional development does not follow a smooth path from novice to expert; nor can they always be expected to learn solely from experience. Because of increasing and conflicting demands, engaging in systematic reflection is often not possible. Yet, reflective practice is recognised as being essential to effective teaching; without this, professional effectiveness may decrease over time. Day postulates that no one form of reflection is necessarily better than another, but that teachers should be encouraged to engage in different forms of reflective practice at different stages, perhaps reflecting their career cycle, resulting in a continuum rather than a hierarchy of reflective practice. Behaving as a professional involves reflection about action – it involves critical enquiry into moral and ethical issues as well as instrumental ones, in order to maintain a broad vision about one’s work. Sustaining such ‘moral purpose’ requires support in the maintenance of a teacher’s personal, social and intellectual health. These are issues which CPD currently fails to address, focusing as it does on knowledge and pedagogy.

Research has shown that there is a strong relationship between the quality of leadership and the prevailing learning culture of a school. Effective schools operate as ‘learning communities’ which seek to support the principles and practices of differentiation for teacher learning as well as for students. In the current system of devolved management, the head teacher is crucial in setting the vision for a broad and balanced approach to CPD within a culture that supports shared values, openness and trust. Day suggests that unless teachers themselves are ‘healthy, motivated and enthusiastic’, have a ‘sense of personal efficacy’ and are committed to student care as well as to achievement, it is unlikely that even those with the highest subject and pedagogical knowledge will really succeed. He considers that setting teacher development only within the context of institutional development underestimates the importance of teachers acting as ‘active agents within their own worlds’.

The maintenance of teaching staffs’ personal, social and intellectual health is a theme continued in Chapter 5, but from the perspective of further and higher education. Staff here have also perceived, with considerable unease, a change from a largely pedagogic orientation to one of increased managerialism. But research shows that they remain focused on the needs of their students. Julia Corkindale and Gillian Trorey, staff development co-ordinators in further and higher education respectively, present the findings of research carried out on organisational and individual perspectives of professional development within the two sectors. They suggest that the current focus on human resource management fails to recognise and cultivate the full professional potential of academic staff, to the detriment of the institution, individual members of staff and students. Staff feel excluded from executive decision-making, despite the considerable interest, expertise and knowledge that exists among them. Complex institutions need staff entitlement and empowerment to function effectively. It is easy to map out corporate objectives; it is harder to guarantee staff commitment. Corkindale and Trorey conclude that, as attempts to create a single organisational culture are not only unsuccessful, but also ineffective, further and higher education institutions must recognise the advantages of diversity and seek to develop internal policies through collaboration rather than imposition.

One suggested approach is to adopt an alternative model of employee-employer relationships: that of reciprocal contracting. Stemming from the same principles as ‘psychological contracting’ (Schein, 1978), reciprocal contracting emphasises the need for equity in this relationship. It implies a more teacher-centred epistemology and a need for more individual personal and professional development, tailored, as Day also points out, to the stages of one’s ‘life career’ and working patterns. More complex than existing systems, its effectiveness will depend on the skill of individual managers; if carried out effectively, it has the potential to create more dynamic, intelligent ‘learning organisations’, using the wealth of existing expertise. In the end, teaching quality depends on this.

In Chapter 6, Catherine Scott and Steve Dinham review research that they have carried out over a number of years in Australia and other countries into the role of teachers and teacher satisfaction, which suggests that, for some staff, the need to consider career stages may be too late. They describe how teachers are increasingly being placed in a paradoxical situation. Widening responsibilities and increased expectations of teachers are set against mounting criticism and declining status. Many teachers are experiencing ‘change fatigue’ and feel less able to exert control over their professional lives. Many have reacted against this by reassessing their workloads and their commitment to professional development.

Scott and Dinham describe a phenomenon which they term ‘retreating’, whereby individual teachers, in a reaction to increased workloads and poor promotion prospects, progressively give up any extra-curricular activities. They point out that this results in a loss of the ‘extras’ that make schools so rewarding for teachers and pupils and usually enhance their reputation in the community. Their research showed a positive correlation between the length of time in the current school and teacher dissatisfaction; yet there were few opportunities to take a career break, sabbatical or other ‘refreshing’ activity. They suggest that the phenomenon of ‘too long in one school’ and a declining commitment to professional development go hand in hand. The resultant demoralisation represents a lost opportunity to share the fruits of experience with younger, less experienced teachers.

Scott and Dinham’s research has also revealed that those teachers who are able to survive and are ‘successful’ in this climate are those who consistently reflect on their practice, and have formulated their own personal development plan, together with steps to put this into action. However, these plans almost always showed a clear preference for professional development which was focused on the teaching of their subject discipline, whilst the training actually provided by employers was frequently concerned with systems, administration or school policy. They pose the question: is the ‘average’ teacher prepared to take charge of hi...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Notes on Contributors
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction: Meeting the Needs of the Individual and the Institution
• 2 Performance Management and Control of the Professions
• 3 The Individual and the Institutional: Balancing Professional Development Needs Within Further Education
• 4 Revisiting the Purposes of Continuing Professional Development
• 5 Career Dynamics in Further and Higher Education
• 6 Educational Change and Teacher Development
• 7 Professionals or Prisoners? The Competency-Based Approach to Professional Development
• 8 School Needs, Teachers’ Personal Needs and the Set Agenda: Conflict and Challenges
• 9 Complexity, Creativity and Personal Development in Headship
• 10 The Impact of Information on Individuals and Organisations
• 11 Whole School Development Policies: A Case Study
• 12 Leadership for Sustainable Development Education
• 13 Institutional Development and Professional Needs: Some Reflections
• Index