Can Small Urban Communities Survive?

Culturological Analysis in Urban Rehabilitation - Cases in Slovenia and Scotland

Branka Berce-Bratko

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN:
  9781138734708
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351739061
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Sociology
• Index: Social Sciences

This title was first published in 2001. Throughout the post-war period, there has been much activity in the conservation and renewal of old town centres throughout Europe. A considerable body of knowledge has been built up on the technical side of rehabilitation over a period of 40 years, but little attention has been paid to related societal and cultural aspects. More often than not this results in a degree of failure in the rehabilitation process. This is an exploration of how the planning and design of urban areas might be improved by the incorporation of culturological analysis within the town planning process. European practice in residential rehabilitation and conservation is renewed in order to gauge what progress has been made, with particular emphasis on solutions and remedies associated with cultural, ethnicity and minority issues.

1 About Small Urban Communities

Introduction and Objectives

Throughout the post-war period, there has been much activity in the conservation and renewal of old town centres throughout Europe. In the most successful cases, town centres which had previously been at risk of being deserted became again popular places for people to live. These renewal schemes were carried out predominantly as re-urbanisation schemes, and this process affected the revival of residential, i.e. community function of the city centres. Recently, there began also the rehabilitation of modern developed areas which are either physically obsolete, ecologically unfit to live in, or functionally inadequate and socially degraded to such an extent that there was a need for physical, social and cultural regeneration of the area. Planners should include in their considerations the quality of the living environment, sustainable development and social equity. All these objectives can be supported through urban regeneration. Hence there is a need for planning thought and the planning process to take on board new concepts which can be pursued by action to deal with the problems of conservation and rehabilitation. Through experience of urban renewal during the last forty years a considerable body of knowledge has been built up on the technical side of rehabilitation. The societal and cultural aspects, however, are often underdeveloped or ill-considered, resulting frequently in a degree of failure in the rehabilitation process, related to these latter aspects. It is nowadays generally agreed that the most effective approach should be to focus on local issues as understood by that community, using bottom-up procedures (1987 Prague Conference, H. Magel, ARGE 1991, Beyerische Stadterneuerung 1991, and OECD paper 103, April 1991). In the author's study "Culturological analysis as a method of assessing societal impacts on environment and planning the improvements" (Berce-Bratko, 1990, b), where culturological analysis (CA) was developed as a method of assessing the impacts on inhabitants and environment, it was suggested how this kind of analysis could be used to improve areas of Ljubljana in respect of local societal impacts on environments and so planning the improvements, the author's study on "Urban Rehabilitation Project - Basic Studies for the Old Town Centre of Krško" (Berce-Bratko, 1985 a) incorporated a CA of Krško, which is presented in Chapter 5 of this study as Case Study B. Surveys were carried out prior to the rehabilitation process, and because the author has subsequently monitored and reviewed the rehabilitation process in Krško, it is possible to evaluate the performance of C A there and to assess whether this kind of analysis might be used in Scotland and other countries as well. An objective of this thesis will be to demonstrate the type of methodology which can be used to incorporate CA in rehabilitation projects. The hypothesis to be explored is that the use of culturological analysis results in proposals which have a beneficial impact on peoples' satisfaction with schemes of conservation, renewal and rehabilitation.

The essential aim of this study is to extend the author's previous work and to explore how the formulation of rehabilitation policies and the planning and design of rehabilitation projects can be improved by the incorporation of CA within these processes. In CA we are aiming to develop a methodology for determining societal impacts, and within that for establishing socio-environmental improvements on the basis of culture as a prime determinant of change aiming to re-establish community. This can be achieved by cross-cultural comparisons within the region or city studied, on the basis of activities and cultural attitudes, including citizens' or tenants' participation. Hence the formal aim of the study is to explore the suitability of CA for application in conservation and rehabilitation schemes for small urban communities. The method was developed originally for use at Krško, a small urban community in Slovenia, and further adapted for application more generally within Slovenian towns. The study identifies also the basic modifications which may be required for application of the method in different contexts, and then goes on to assess which modifications would be appropriate for use in a Scottish urban context. This particular method is a part of the culturological approach to planning which is currently developing within the general philosophy of the subject (G.Olsson, opening speech to AESOP Congress, Stockholm 1992, and similarly B.Turner, ENHR Congress, Housing in Transition, Piran 1997).

From a methodological point of view we can distinguish four steps of CA development, initially used in Krško, and in this particular study in Case studies B and C.

The first step consists of carrying out interviews with a general questionnaire and while performing the face-to-face interview preliminary instruction is given to the interviewee in terms of advice and information about planning procedures for rehabilitation, with particular emphasis on the participatory role of residents in the community. The results of interviews are assessed. Then a follow-on series of deeper interviews are undertaken, which are personalised to some extent for a selection of local inhabitants, development professionals, and councillors and more localised in their space and context. The author's own culturological evaluation of people and places (physical, social and cultural proper) was made independently. The first phase finished with a public display of draft conclusions, deduced from a combination of results from all the above-mentioned investigations. The public, more precisely the residents, were encouraged to put forward their own views about the draft conclusions, and the conclusions are reviewed in the light of these. On the basis of revised conclusions a development scheme is formulated, and thke design procedure can begin.

The second step is generalising the method for use in Slovenian towns by adjusting the scope of questions so as to reflect differences in regional character and identity of the community, and by exploring ways of achieving the most effective dialogue with groups of a particular local tradition or ethnic affilitation in particular communities.

The third step is universalising the method by identification of wider ranges of environment, belief and behaviour for a broader variety of regions, obtaining a special knowledge of its main cultures, and adjusting the method in order to emphasise "regional" factors.

The fourth step is to establish which modifications are necessary to make the method appropriate for use in Scottish towns. This entails adjusting the method to reflect both the different "planning" process and the different "way of life". The four initial steps were broken into seven stages in Chapter 6 (see Fig, 6.3).

CA is advocated in order to establish the basic causes of problems, to find ways of alleviating tensions in the community, and especially to establish local identity and enable its continuation or conservation as a criterion of authentic development. The role of the planner is to strive towards a high quality of environment, especially built environment, for all people. In terms of sustainability, both natural and cultural heritage have to be protected. Cultural identity is becoming an important element of development on the local scale and needs to be safeguarded to ensure authentic development. The planner has to intervene against market forces in order to achieve those goals. The contribution of CA is the criteria derived by a combination of qualitative and quantitative measurements and the expertise of the culturologist in the interpretation of cultural factors. In the Krško study, criteria were developed to assess the current situation in order to select areas for rehabilitation on the basis of authentic development; and others were developed for use in monitoring.

The study has an introduction where definitions and research justification are dealt with, followed by a chapter on theoretical background. Both cultural theory and town planning theory lack a universal approach; hence there is a need to stress and clarity the position by defining different phenomena. The section on literature is wide-ranging, as are the portrayals of cultural anthropology, eco-psychology, human ecology, architectural concepts and relationship to design, and also geographical research on identity of places all in a perspective of urban community. The criteria used in deciding whether to include the references were their importance and usefulness for the development of the method of CA.

A chapter is devoted to comparative developments in Scotland and Slovenia within the context of urban renewal and conservation in Europe, with respect to the development of CA. The legislative background is examined, together with some important examples and evaluations of the approach to the concept of CA and forms of participation in different schemes.

The chapter where research methods are described considers in detail criteria for the selection of case studies, their method of selection, and qualitative and quantitative methods used, emphasising the justification for their use. The selection of case studies and results of the field work carried out during the research are then outlined. In 1980, CA was conducted in formulating the rehabilitation strategy for Krško town centre which dates from the 16-17th century. In 1989 and 1991, the author assessed how useful this method had been in the planning of rehabilitation after the completion of work, which began in 1985, evaluating the effect of such method and establishing a justification for adopting it. In the case of Slovenia, Kostanjevica is an example within a rural area where an initial CA was conducted in 1983, to support the programme of rehabilitation of its town centre; the actual rehabilitation began in autumn 1990.

In Glasgow, the Garnethill area was selected as an example of Housing Association rehabilitation of a 19th and early 20th century area containing listed buildings, including a listed building which had been recently upgraded from the category B to category A. There are plans for converting an unused school in the area into housing. CA was tested there to prove its acceptability in the perspective of development at a local level. The second example in Glasgow examined rehabilitation in an area built in the 1950s, under the direction of the Calvay Co-operative, where lessons could be learned on local participation and the organisation of renewal in recently built but run-down housing areas.

Figure 1.1 Structural Concept of the Study

The concluding Chapter 6 of the study synthesises the results. In these, an approach is justified of employing the development of culturological indicators and criteria for rehabilitation with care; an explanation is given of the theory of CA which evolved from the research; and guidelines are formulated to incorporate it in parallel to the planning process. There are suggestions for further research in the culturological aspects of planning. Figure 1.1 below indicates how the structure of the research was conceived initially. Experience of much dissatisfaction with planners' and architects' approaches to residential rehabilitation suggests that there is a widespread need for an alternative method which can enable us to assess the situation in a specific location, and at the same time help us to set the criteria for improvement.Our research was conducted in a spirit of establishing a "new humanistic" style of planning procedure. The study was focused mainly on obsolescence in long-established urban areas with a welldeveloped sense of community, and partly on recently-built housing estates which are a major task of improvement schemes nowadays, from which a new formula for: "CA in urban rehabilitation", including conservation, could be developed.

As has been stressed earlier, there is a need for a closer scrutiny of the theoretical background and relationship between culturology and planning. The variety of ways of defining culture can easily create confusion. Culture in its narrowest sense usually refers solely to the fine arts, but in this study culture is referred to mainly in its widest, anthropological sense. Culture can be divided basically into its physical, mental, and societal aspects. Based on this wider definition, the spatial relationship in cultural terms is developed. In this study the following definition of culture is used:

Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society

(Taylor, 1958, 1).

According to Florence Kluckhohn, the American anthropologist who revolutionised anthropology by turning it towards problems of the culture of every-day man, value orientation is defined as follows:

• a generalised and organised conception, influencing behavior, of nature of man's place in it, of man's relation to man, and of the desirable and man-desirable as they may relate to man-environment and interhuman relations (Florence Kluckhohn, 1953, 357).

It is first necessary to define some of the basic terms being used:

• cultural - alternative meanings are: "pertaining to culture, civilising, refining the mind, artistic and intellectual "high culture", characteristic of the way of life" (Oxford Dictionary);
• culturological - involving the scientific and artistic examination of cultures which enables a systematic classification for patterns of living (Oxford Dictionary);
• culture-proper - referring to the intellectual, educational and artistic aspects of culture in contrast to the material and societal aspects (Nas, 1987, Berce-Bratko 1990, 27, ibid, 1998, 87).

Principles of planning in relation to culture could be described by purposes of planning. The purpose of planning in different countries can be debatable, but not the planning principles. From the broadest point of view, especially from the definition adopted for Slovenia, planning is directing development to achieve policy goals. The definition of planning is directing development according to policies set by society, and the way of implementing them in the physical environment. This implies the formulation of development proposals and the design of urban settlements in such a way as to influence societal activities and to enable a certain way of life. Thus we can distinguish town planning as both a profession and a discipline (Mušič, 1980, 37). Decision-making is basic to planning-programmes, and methods must be decided upon for achieving these goals. Town planning can be conceived variously as: a societal function and urban way of life, a function of government, or a professional discipline.

According to the definition in Slovenia planning embraces:

• the growth of settlements and organisation of space;
• the creation of proper conditions for housing, traffic circulation, employment and recreation;
• the balanced spatial distribution of people and their activities;
• the conceptual design of spatial structures and images of townscape and settlements; and
• the economic and cultural use of space (Urbanistični terminološki slovar - Town Planning Glossary, 1976, 27).

A plan consists of specifications of both contemporary development patterns and desirable future developments. At the same time, it represents a formula for achieving planning goals. Since the 1960s, plans have tended to change in style, from being mere static images to presenting dynamic programmes for the "organisation of space". Some of the latest developments of "modern-style" development plans are underlain by a vision of the city as a historical evolution of social and economic culture. In planning methodology there has been some progression from a dependence solely on technical skills, like those of architects and civil engineers, to embrace also social science skills from economists and geographers who have entered into the planning field since the 1950s. As we emphasized earlier, the efforts of different disciplines are often dispersed and uncoordinated, although planning as a discipline should be integrated and comprehensive. In the preliminary, analytical stages it should be heteronomic, but they should be autonomic in the later synoptic and creative stages. Heteronomic planning is necessary when different disciplines, approaches and methodologies must combine to face problems which can be tackled only that way. Autonomic planning is appropriate when solving spatial and non-spatial problems of societal development which can be solved spatially. Culturoiogical inputs should occur throughout the entire planning and implementation process for each community. The theoretical approach to CA can be subdivided into:

1. those elements which are part of the culturoiogical concept;
2. cultural aspects which relate to renewal and rehabilitation of settlements.

Culturological Concepts

These are based on the theory of culture in its widest definition. In its anthropological dimension this refers to the study of man's way of life in different societies. In its ethnological dimension, it refers to the historical origins of people and the evolution of their activity patterns, including their societal traditions. A culturological concept is a model for application in planning, derived from culturological concepts. In order to develop a culturological approach for planning, we have first to develop a culturological concept for planning. Within planning research, the culturological concept appears in the form of a model. In practical applications, this concept appears as a system of criteria. The cultural patterns serve as criteria, which are derived from the system of cultural values. Cultural values are incorporated in the planning process first as a concept, and then as criteria. Values are concepts which characterise either the individual or the group. Within the system of cultural patterns, people are able to choose all that is deemed available, accessible and desirable in the material and non-material spheres of their lives (Mead, 1970, 17), A cultural pattern is a system of norms, assessments, acceptance and knowledge, which is determined generally by environments (Mead, 1970 and Berce-Bratko, 1990, 24, and 1990, 18). The system of cultural values has a direct impact on the planning process in the information-gathering and analysis phases. These values are criteria for the selection of a development option. These impact indirectly on the information base and on the selection of goals, policies and strategies. The culturological concept has a feed-back effect on the definiti...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Dedication
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• List of Abbreviations
• Acknowledgements
• Preface
• Abstract
• Summary in Slovene
• 1 About Small Urban Communities
• 2 Practice in Conservation and Rehabilitation
• 3 How to Explore Small Urban Communities?
• 4 Cases of Small Urban Communities
• 5 What has been Established?
• 6 Yes, Small Urban Communities Can Survive and Revive
• References