Carbon Black

Science and Technology, Second Edition

Jean-Baptiste Donnet

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN:
  9780824789756
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351462617
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Chemistry
• Index: Chemistry

The second edition of this reference provides comprehensive examinations of developments in the processing and applications of carbon black, including the use of new analytical tools such as scanning tunnelling microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and inverse gas chromatography.;Completely rewritten and updated by numerous experts in the field to reflect the enormous growth of the field since the publication of the previous edition, Carbon Black: discusses the mechanism of carbon black formation based on recent advances such as the discovery of fullerenes; elucidates micro- and macrostructure morphology and other physical characteristics; outlines the fractal geometry of carbon black as a new approach to characterization; reviews the effect of carbon black on the electrical and thermal conductivity of filled polymers; delineates the applications of carbon black in elastomers, plastics, and zerographic toners; and surveys possible health consequences of exposure to carbon black.;With over 1200 literature citations, tables, and figures, this resource is intended for physical, polymer, surface and colloid chemists; chemical and plastics engineers; spectroscopists; materials scientists; occupational safety and health physicians; and upper-level undergraduate and graduate students in these disciplines.

Chapter 1

MANUFACTURE OF CARBON BLACK

Gerhard Kühner and Manfred Voll

Degussa AG, Frankfurt (Main)/Hürth, Germany

Carbon black can be ranked as being one of the oldest manufactured products and its usage as a pigment for the production of India inks and mural paints can be traced back to the ancient Chinese and Egyptians. However, it was after the invention of movable type in the fifteenth century that the printed book became the most important means of communicating information, and as a consequence the demand for a strong black pigment increased steadily.

The most important event which was to have the greatest influence on the usage of carbon black occurred at the turn of the century and involved the discovery of the reinforcing effect of carbon blacks when added to natural rubber, a discovery that was destined to become the most significant milestone in the rubber and automotive industry. By using carbon black as a reinforcing filler the service life of a tire was greatly increased, ultimately making it possible to achieve durabilities of several ten thousand kilometers. Today carbon blacks play an important role, not only as a reinforcing filler for tires and other rubber goods but also as a pigment for printing inks, coatings, plastics, and a variety of other applications.

For several thousand years the use of carbon blacks was only possible after a suitable production process became available. It is a well-known fact that restricting the access of oxygen to the flames of burning oils or resins results in the formation of carbonaceous materials, an effect which was the basis of all historic production processes.

The majority of industrial carbon blacks produced today is also based on the process of “incomplete combustion” of hydrocarbons. However, a second process is also used, namely that of “thermal decomposition”, during which the carbon black is formed in the absence of oxygen. These two process definitions may serve as a preliminary classification which subsequently will be subdivided further.

For the manufacture of industrial blacks the only processes used today are those which can be precisely controlled by appropriate measuring and control techniques, thus allowing the production of carbon blacks with clearly defined properties. They are therefore different from those processes in which soot is released as a contaminated byproduct, such as occurs in poorly adjusted heating ovens or during the uncontrolled burning of carbonaceous materials like wood, coal or oil. This chapter deals only with processes which yield clearly defined end products and for which the English term “carbon black” has been adopted in many countries.

1.1. THE CARBON BLACK INDUSTRY

As a member of the carbon family, carbon black differs from other carbon-based materials in many respects, an important one being that of bulk density. This property has prompted carbon black production facilities to be sited as close as possible to consumers since, when compared with carbon black feedstock, the transportation costs for carbon black are considerably higher. As a consequence carbon black plants are concentrated in those parts of the world where major portions of the industry requiring this material are located (Table 1).

The most important regions are North America, West and East Europe, and Asia, while South America, Africa, and Australia are at the lower end of the scale. Today the global installed capacity is in excess of seven million tons per annum, with a worldwide demand for carbon blacks currently in the order of six million tons per annum. This quantity is produced by more than 140 carbon black plants situated in 35 countries.

Table 1. Distribution of World Carbon Black Production Capacity

Region	Number of plants	Estimated capacity, 1000 tons/year	Capacity share, %
North America	25	1925	27
West Europe	20	1420	20
East Europe	20	1485	21
Asia	69	1750	24
South America	8	410	6
Africa/Australia	4	165	2
World total	146	7155	100

Since carbon black is predominantly used as a rubber reinforcing material and mainly in tires, most of the carbon black production facilities are located in those countries possessing major tire and automotive industries.

Table 2 shows the 10 major carbon black producing countries. The “top ten” have each capacity of over 200,000 tons per annum, sharing together 77% of the total world capacity.

Following the rationalization and concentration of the automotive and tire industries, a consolidation of the carbon black industry also took place with the result that, of five major U.S.-based producers having worldwide activities in 1980 only two, Cabot and Columbian, survived – with the German-based company, Degussa, becoming a third major producer. These three companies operating globally, together with those local producers having capacities in excess of 200,000 tons per annum, are listed in Table 3.

This table shows that the seven major producers listed account for 57% of the total world capacity with the three top global producers sharing between them 44%. The three companies – Cabot, Degussa, and Columbian – are not only the leading manufacturers of rubber grades but also of pigment and specialty blacks on a worldwide basis.

Table 2. Major Carbon Black Producing Countries

Country	Number of plants	Estimated capacity, 1000 tons/year	Capacity share, %
1. USA	20	1570	22
2. CIS^a	20	1200	17
3. Japan	12	780	11
4. Germany	5	405	6
5. China	40	300	4
6. France	3	280	4
7. Brazil	3	255	4
8. South Korea	3	250	3
9. Italy	3	210	3
10. India	7	210	3
Total 1 – 10	116	5460	77
Other countries	30	1695	23
World total	146	7155	100

^a Commonwealth of Independent States (former USSR).

Table 3. Major Carbon Black Producers

Country^a	Number of plants	Estimated capacity, 1000 tons/year	Capacity share, %
1. Cabot/USA	26	1725	24
2. Degussa/Germany	10	830	12
3. Columbian/USA	10	595	8
Total global producers	46	3150	44
4. Huber/USA	3	270	4
5. Sid Richardson/USA	3	245	3
6. Tokai Carbon/Japan	3	230	3
7. Witco/USA	3	200	3
Total “Big Seven”	58	4095	57
Others	88	3060	43
World total	146	7155	100

^a Plants and their capacities are included if at least 50 % of the shares are controlled by the company.

The rubber industry is by far the largest consumer of carbon blacks, accounting for approximately 90% of total carbon black sales, the major portion being concerned with sales to the tire industry. However, not only tires but also mechanical rubber goods and carbon black filled plastics are major component materials used in automotive production. Consequently, growth and development of the automotive industry, combined with changes in driving behavior, are key factors having the most significant influence on carbon black production.

The remaining 10% is sold to the non-rubber industry. Their uses as pigment blacks in printing inks and in the plastic industry are by far the most important. Both of these sectors are estimated as consuming roughly one-third each of total pigment black sales. The next important application, especially for the higher-priced, fine-particle-size blacks, is in the production of black paints and coatings taking about 9% of production. This is followed by the paper industry, consuming about 4%.

Table 4. Breakdown of Total Carbon Black Sales According to the Fields of Application (Estimated)

Rubber/non-rubber,	%	Non-rubber,	%
Tires	65
MRG^a	25
Total Rubber	90
Non-rubber	10	Printing inks	30
		Plastics	36
		Coatings	9
		Paper	4
		Others	21
		Total pigment	100
Total	100

^a Mechanical rubber goods.

Other areas, not based on the pigmentation characteristics of carbon blacks but which, nevertheless, are classified as applications for pigment blacks are manufacture of electrodes and reduction of metal oxides...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Foreword
• Preface
• Contributors
• Introduction
• Chapter 1 MANUFACTURE OF CARBON BLACK
• Chapter 2 MECHANISM OF CARBON BLACK FORMATION
• Chapter 3 MICROSTRUCTURE, MORPHOLOGY AND GENERAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Chapter 4 SURFACE GROUPS ON CARBON BLACKS
• Chapter 5 CARBON BLACK SURFACE STUDIED BY SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY
• Chapter 6 SURFACE ENERGY OF CARBON BLACK
• Chapter 7 FRACTAL GEOMETRY
• Chapter 8 CONDUCTING CARBON BLACK
• Chapter 9 CARBON BLACK REINFORCEMENT OF ELASTOMERS
• Chapter 10 FRACTURE OF CARBON BLACK FILLED VULCANIZATES AT HIGH TEMPERATURE AND UNDER SWOLLEN CONDITIONS
• Chapter 11 DYNAMIC VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES OF LOADED ELASTOMERS
• Chapter 12 CARBON BLACK IN PLASTICS
• Chapter 13 CARBON BLACK IN XEROGRAPHIC TONERS
• Chapter 14 HEALTH EFFECTS OF CARBON BLACK
• Author Index
• Subject Index