Assessment of Mental Health, Religion and Culture

The Development and Examination of Psychometric Measures

Christopher Alan Lewis

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9780815383192
• eBook ISBN: 9781351206372
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Mental Health in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Assessment of mental health, religion and culture: The development and examination of psychometric measures focuses on questionnaires that are of practical value for researchers interested in examining the relationship between the constructs of mental health, religion, and culture.

Three particular areas of development and evaluation are represented within this volume: firstly, the psychometric properties of recently developed new questionnaires; secondly, the psychometric properties of established questionnaires that have been translated into other languages; and thirdly, the psychometric properties of questionnaires employed in various cultural contexts and religious samples. The research in this book is authored by a wide range of international scholars working on diverse samples and in a variety of different cultures. In doing so, the book facilitates future research in the area of mental health, religion, and culture. This book was originally published as two special issues of Mental Health, Religion & Culture.

Development and validation of Vikaras Hindi Scale

Swati Sharma and Kamlesh Singh

ABSTRACT
The present research imports the concept of Vikaras (vices) from the philosophy of Vedanta. Vedic Philosophy plays a central role in Indian Psychology. However, there is a major disconnect between theory and empirical research due to scarcity of tools for measuring the same. The present study aims to develop and validate a scale on Vikaras (vices). A total of 86 items were pooled to develop the scale. Data were collected in two phases from a sample of 555 participants belonging to Delhi and national capital region in India. A seven-factor solution with 36 items, explaining 51.08% of variance was obtained through exploratory factor analysis. Overall reliability of the scale was found to be excellent (α = .88) and the concurrent validity of the scale was satisfactory as correlations were found to be −.31 and −.39 (P < .01) for Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE)-P and SPANE-B, respectively, and .38 (P < .01) for SPANE-N. It was found that all items of the newly developed scale constituted a valid and reliable measure of Vikaras (vices).

Introduction

Mainstream psychology predominantly focused on Western perspective of psychology, thereby, ignoring the possibilities of other systems of understanding, grounded in different cultures (Misra & Gergen, 1993). However, the emerging view that modern psychology cannot be considered as universal psychology has resulted in attempts to indigenise psychology and to develop indigenous psychologies all over the world (Kim & Berry, 1993; Kim & Park, 2005). There has been a growing interest in exploring psychology that is practised in other parts of the world. The appropriate way to study a psychological construct accordingly is the study from an indigenous or emic perspective. While studying Indian personality, for example, it is important that consideration is given at the empirical level to the socio-cultural ethos by which Indians are suggested to be guided in everyday life (Singh, Misra, & De Raad, 2013). Hence, the Indian researchers and mental health professionals are looking forward to observations within the culture and structure phenomena as found in the culture. Religion forms an integral part of the culture and its psychology. Concepts of personality and emotions are present in Indian religious and philosophical texts, in forms such as Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (attachment), Lobha (greed), and Ahankara (pride/ego), also known as Vikaras (vices), and are quite evident in human behaviour. Present research attempts to assist their endeavours by constructing a standardised tool for the same.

Conceptual framework

Vikara (vices) is a term commonly used in Indian context to refer to vices or internal enemies of a person. It is a Sanskrit term which as per Vedantic philosophy signifies a change of form or nature [from ‘vi’ change + the verbal root ‘kri’ to act, make]. According to Sadvidyā (the science of being), sat is the primordial being, who is the universal substrate. Any transformation in this naturally quiescent and peaceful condition of the inner being thus depicts deterioration (Encyclopaedic theosophical glossary, 1999), leading to various subclinical forms of self-destructive or other-destructive behaviour/vices/Vikaras. Indian religious and philosophical texts such as Bhagavad Gita, Guru Granth Sahib, and Dhammapada have mentioned various Vikaras (vices) such as Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (attachment), Lobha (greed), and Ahankara (pride/ego).

Kama (Lust) is the Indian notion of pleasure, which encompasses a wide variety of concepts including sensual gratification, sexual fulfilment, aesthetic enjoyments, and an intense desire or need (Bhagavad Gita, 16:10) which is similar to the conceptualisation of Lust by Macy (1975).

Krodha (Anger) is characterised as physical, verbal, and mental expression of emotions that have strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, or hostility. It is referred as a quality of demonic nature (Bhagavad Gita, 16:4). It is analogous to anger. Anger is expressed through active (action that is verbally or physically intended at target) or passive behaviours (silent sulking, hostility, and tension) (Clausen, 2007).

Lobha (Greed) is interpreted as an intense and selfish desire of objects which leads to unrest and prolonged misery (Bhagavad Gita, 14:12; Dhammapada, 18:248). Greedy people believe in abundance of things (Luke 12:15). It is said that desire, when fulfilled, gives rise to Lobha/greed. It is also defined as an extreme or excessive desire for resources, especially for property such as money, real estate, or other symbols of wealth (Taflinger, 1996).

Moha (Attachment) is fondness of worldly things or materialism (Tatla, 2008). As per Sikhism (Adi Granth), gold, silver, soft beds, mansions, and attractions, all are material objects and finding pleasure in them is nothing but Moha. Bhagavad Gita (7:27) describes it as the delusion of worldly attachments or spiritual ignorance.

Ahankara (Pride or Ego) is the feeling of excessive vanity or self-importance. It can be due to one’s possessions, material wealth, intelligence, or powers. It is desiring praise and authority over others (Dhammapada, 5:73–74) and idea of me and mine (Bhagavath Gita, 11:4).

Patanjali Yogasutra (2:3) further mentions various worldly afflictions such as avidya (misperception), asmita (misidentification), raga (craving), dvesa (aversion), and abhinivesa (insecurity of life). Vices such as Sloth – reluctance to work, Gluttony – excessive eating and drinking, and Envy – overwhelming sense of resentment, are also found as deviations of true self and can be related to the Indian concept of tamas (apathy). Emotions are seen as arising from Kama/lust or desires (Parthasarthy, 2001). Stronger desire leads to stronger emotional experience. A desire when not fulfilled or thwarted gives rise to anger (Krodha), jealousy (Irshaya), unhappiness (Dukha), and suffering. The fulfilment of a desire can and most often leads to greed (Lobha).

In an empirical context, many researchers have reported positive correlations of various Vikaras (vices) to negative emotions and different subclinical forms of socially aversive behaviour. Anger is found positively correlated to depression (Busch, 2009; Luutonen, 2007). It is also stated that shame prone individuals are more likely to experience inward anger (Lutwak, Panish, Ferrari, & Razzino, 2001). According to Kernberg (1975) pride is associated with narcissism and might contribute to aggression and hostility. Greed is also found to exhibit association with narcissism (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Positive emotions such as gratitude (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002) are said to be negatively correlated with greed. Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE) (Diener et al., 2010) has been found to be a good measure of individual experiences of positive and negative emotions. Researchers have found different vices to be positively correlated to negative experiences (Simpson, 1990; Singh & Slezackova, 2013).

Present study

Even though other research studies have been done on indigenous and Indian concepts such as Triguna (Khanna, Singh, Singla, & Verma, 2015; Misra, Suvasini, & Srivastava, 2000; Murthy & Kumar, 2007), Sat-Chit-Ananda (Singh, Khari, Amonkar, Arya, & Kumar, 2013), Anasakti (Banth & Talwar, 2012; Bhushan & Jha, 2005), yet, to the best of authors’ knowledge direct empirical assessments of Vikaras (vices) within the Indian setting lack documentation. In the Western context as well only recently have Veselka, Giammarco, and Vernon (2014) attempted to develop and validate Vices and Virtues Scales which assesses individual differences in the propensity to engage in the seven deadly sins. Given the relevance of the notion of Vikaras (vices) and in the light of preceding arguments, there appeared a necessity to develop an instrument for its assessment especially in the dialect predominant in the culture. The present study hence attempts to develop and validate a measure of Vikaras (vices). The scale is constructed in Hindi as it is the most widely spoken language (41.1% of total population) in the country (Census of India, 2001). Concurrent validity of the scale was established using SPANE; Diener et al. (2010). It was hypothesised that newly developed Vikaras Hindi Scale and its factors would be significantly positively correlated with SPANE-N and negatively correlated with SPANE-P and SPANE-B.

Method

The current study was conducted in two phases: pilot study and main study. In the pilot study, a preliminary instrument was generated and its psychometric properties were assessed. Validation and re-assessment of psychometric properties of the instrument obtained at the end of the pilot study, were carried out in the main study. Vikaras Hindi Scale was thus finalised at the end of phase two. This methodology ensured that the items retained at the end were reliable and valid.

Phase 1: pilot study

The objective of this study was to develop an exhaustive list of items that would measure the various aspects of Vikaras (vices) such as Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (attachment), Lobha (greed) as discussed earlier. In this phase, item generation, item review, item refinement, item modification, and exploratory factor analysis were conducted.

Participants

Data were obtained from 150 participants, males = 87 (58%), females = 63 (42%), belonging to the urban setting of Delhi-national capital region (NCR). The age range of the participants was 18–70 years (M = 31.05 years and SD = 12.3 years) and sample consisted of adult (Married = 58 (38.67%) and Unmarried = 92 (61.33%)) individuals.

Measure

On the basis of extensive review of literature, a pool of 88 potential items (63 positive and 25 negatively wo...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Citation Information
• Notes on Contributors
• Introduction
• 1. Development and validation of Vikaras Hindi Scale
• 2. The psychometric properties of the Sahin-Francis Scale of Attitude towards Islam revised among Sunni students in Malaysia
• 3. Development and validation of the Buddhist Patience Questionnaire
• 4. Development and validation of Religious Attribution Scale: in association with religiosity and meaning in life among economically disadvantaged adolescents in Indonesia
• 5. Belief into Action Scale: psychometric properties of the Farsi version
• 6. Validation of Meaning in Life Questionnaire in Hindi (MLQ-H)
• 7. Urdu translation of the Sahin–Francis Scale of Attitude toward Islam Revised: a response and update to Francis, Tekke, and Robbins (2016)
• 8. A confirmatory factor analysis of the Spiritual Transcendence Index: assessing spirituality in a sample of Latino college students
• 9. Dreaming mystical experience among Christians and Hindus: the impact of culture, language, and religious participation on responses to the Dreaming Mysticism Scale
• 10. Psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Belief into Action Scale
• 11. The psychometric properties of the Italian translation of the Purpose in Life Scale (PILS) in Italy among a sample of Italian adults
• 12. Effects of secularisation on the psychometric properties of the Post Critical Belief Scale
• 13. Meditative insight: validation of a French version of Ireland’s Insight Scale (2012) and exploration of relationships between meditative insight and perceived stress
• 14. Intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation in Portuguese Catholics
• 15. Factor analysis and validation of the Brief Religious Coping Scale (Brief-RCOPE) in Iranian university students
• 16. The internal consistency reliability and construct validity of the Santosh–Francis Scale of Attitude toward Hinduism among students in India
• 17. Internal consistency reliability and construct validity of the Astley–Francis Scale of Attitude toward Theistic Faith among religiously unaffiliated, Christian, and Muslim youth in the UK
• 18. Faith, spirituality, and values among Asian-American older adults: an exploratory factor analysis of the Multidimensional Measures of Religion and Spirituality
• 19. Religious experience and religious motivation among Catholic and mainstream Protestant churchgoers in Australia: testing and applying five short measures
• 20. Validating the Flourishing Scale and the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience in India
• 21. The measurement of attitude toward Islam in Pakistan – more positives than negatives?: a response to Hamid et al. (2016)
• Index