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Development and validation of Vikaras Hindi Scale
Swati Sharma and Kamlesh Singh
ABSTRACT
The present research imports the concept of Vikaras (vices) from the philosophy of Vedanta. Vedic Philosophy plays a central role in Indian Psychology. However, there is a major disconnect between theory and empirical research due to scarcity of tools for measuring the same. The present study aims to develop and validate a scale on Vikaras (vices). A total of 86 items were pooled to develop the scale. Data were collected in two phases from a sample of 555 participants belonging to Delhi and national capital region in India. A seven-factor solution with 36 items, explaining 51.08% of variance was obtained through exploratory factor analysis. Overall reliability of the scale was found to be excellent (Ī± = .88) and the concurrent validity of the scale was satisfactory as correlations were found to be ā.31 and ā.39 (P < .01) for Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE)-P and SPANE-B, respectively, and .38 (P < .01) for SPANE-N. It was found that all items of the newly developed scale constituted a valid and reliable measure of Vikaras (vices).
Introduction
Mainstream psychology predominantly focused on Western perspective of psychology, thereby, ignoring the possibilities of other systems of understanding, grounded in different cultures (Misra & Gergen, 1993). However, the emerging view that modern psychology cannot be considered as universal psychology has resulted in attempts to indigenise psychology and to develop indigenous psychologies all over the world (Kim & Berry, 1993; Kim & Park, 2005). There has been a growing interest in exploring psychology that is practised in other parts of the world. The appropriate way to study a psychological construct accordingly is the study from an indigenous or emic perspective. While studying Indian personality, for example, it is important that consideration is given at the empirical level to the socio-cultural ethos by which Indians are suggested to be guided in everyday life (Singh, Misra, & De Raad, 2013). Hence, the Indian researchers and mental health professionals are looking forward to observations within the culture and structure phenomena as found in the culture. Religion forms an integral part of the culture and its psychology. Concepts of personality and emotions are present in Indian religious and philosophical texts, in forms such as Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (attachment), Lobha (greed), and Ahankara (pride/ego), also known as Vikaras (vices), and are quite evident in human behaviour. Present research attempts to assist their endeavours by constructing a standardised tool for the same.
Conceptual framework
Vikara (vices) is a term commonly used in Indian context to refer to vices or internal enemies of a person. It is a Sanskrit term which as per Vedantic philosophy signifies a change of form or nature [from āviā change + the verbal root ākriā to act, make]. According to SadvidyÄ (the science of being), sat is the primordial being, who is the universal substrate. Any transformation in this naturally quiescent and peaceful condition of the inner being thus depicts deterioration (Encyclopaedic theosophical glossary, 1999), leading to various subclinical forms of self-destructive or other-destructive behaviour/vices/Vikaras. Indian religious and philosophical texts such as Bhagavad Gita, Guru Granth Sahib, and Dhammapada have mentioned various Vikaras (vices) such as Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (attachment), Lobha (greed), and Ahankara (pride/ego).
Kama (Lust) is the Indian notion of pleasure, which encompasses a wide variety of concepts including sensual gratification, sexual fulfilment, aesthetic enjoyments, and an intense desire or need (Bhagavad Gita, 16:10) which is similar to the conceptualisation of Lust by Macy (1975).
Krodha (Anger) is characterised as physical, verbal, and mental expression of emotions that have strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, or hostility. It is referred as a quality of demonic nature (Bhagavad Gita, 16:4). It is analogous to anger. Anger is expressed through active (action that is verbally or physically intended at target) or passive behaviours (silent sulking, hostility, and tension) (Clausen, 2007).
Lobha (Greed) is interpreted as an intense and selfish desire of objects which leads to unrest and prolonged misery (Bhagavad Gita, 14:12; Dhammapada, 18:248). Greedy people believe in abundance of things (Luke 12:15). It is said that desire, when fulfilled, gives rise to Lobha/greed. It is also defined as an extreme or excessive desire for resources, especially for property such as money, real estate, or other symbols of wealth (Taflinger, 1996).
Moha (Attachment) is fondness of worldly things or materialism (Tatla, 2008). As per Sikhism (Adi Granth), gold, silver, soft beds, mansions, and attractions, all are material objects and finding pleasure in them is nothing but Moha. Bhagavad Gita (7:27) describes it as the delusion of worldly attachments or spiritual ignorance.
Ahankara (Pride or Ego) is the feeling of excessive vanity or self-importance. It can be due to oneās possessions, material wealth, intelligence, or powers. It is desiring praise and authority over others (Dhammapada, 5:73ā74) and idea of me and mine (Bhagavath Gita, 11:4).
Patanjali Yogasutra (2:3) further mentions various worldly afflictions such as avidya (misperception), asmita (misidentification), raga (craving), dvesa (aversion), and abhinivesa (insecurity of life). Vices such as Sloth ā reluctance to work, Gluttony ā excessive eating and drinking, and Envy ā overwhelming sense of resentment, are also found as deviations of true self and can be related to the Indian concept of tamas (apathy). Emotions are seen as arising from Kama/lust or desires (Parthasarthy, 2001). Stronger desire leads to stronger emotional experience. A desire when not fulfilled or thwarted gives rise to anger (Krodha), jealousy (Irshaya), unhappiness (Dukha), and suffering. The fulfilment of a desire can and most often leads to greed (Lobha).
In an empirical context, many researchers have reported positive correlations of various Vikaras (vices) to negative emotions and different subclinical forms of socially aversive behaviour. Anger is found positively correlated to depression (Busch, 2009; Luutonen, 2007). It is also stated that shame prone individuals are more likely to experience inward anger (Lutwak, Panish, Ferrari, & Razzino, 2001). According to Kernberg (1975) pride is associated with narcissism and might contribute to aggression and hostility. Greed is also found to exhibit association with narcissism (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Positive emotions such as gratitude (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002) are said to be negatively correlated with greed. Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE) (Diener et al., 2010) has been found to be a good measure of individual experiences of positive and negative emotions. Researchers have found different vices to be positively correlated to negative experiences (Simpson, 1990; Singh & Slezackova, 2013).
Present study
Even though other research studies have been done on indigenous and Indian concepts such as Triguna (Khanna, Singh, Singla, & Verma, 2015; Misra, Suvasini, & Srivastava, 2000; Murthy & Kumar, 2007), Sat-Chit-Ananda (Singh, Khari, Amonkar, Arya, & Kumar, 2013), Anasakti (Banth & Talwar, 2012; Bhushan & Jha, 2005), yet, to the best of authorsā knowledge direct empirical assessments of Vikaras (vices) within the Indian setting lack documentation. In the Western context as well only recently have Veselka, Giammarco, and Vernon (2014) attempted to develop and validate Vices and Virtues Scales which assesses individual differences in the propensity to engage in the seven deadly sins. Given the relevance of the notion of Vikaras (vices) and in the light of preceding arguments, there appeared a necessity to develop an instrument for its assessment especially in the dialect predominant in the culture. The present study hence attempts to develop and validate a measure of Vikaras (vices). The scale is constructed in Hindi as it is the most widely spoken language (41.1% of total population) in the country (Census of India, 2001). Concurrent validity of the scale was established using SPANE; Diener et al. (2010). It was hypothesised that newly developed Vikaras Hindi Scale and its factors would be significantly positively correlated with SPANE-N and negatively correlated with SPANE-P and SPANE-B.
Method
The current study was conducted in two phases: pilot study and main study. In the pilot study, a preliminary instrument was generated and its psychometric properties were assessed. Validation and re-assessment of psychometric properties of the instrument obtained at the end of the pilot study, were carried out in the main study. Vikaras Hindi Scale was thus finalised at the end of phase two. This methodology ensured that the items retained at the end were reliable and valid.
Phase 1: pilot study
The objective of this study was to develop an exhaustive list of items that would measure the various aspects of Vikaras (vices) such as Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (attachment), Lobha (greed) as discussed earlier. In this phase, item generation, item review, item refinement, item modification, and exploratory factor analysis were conducted.
Participants
Data were obtained from 150 participants, males = 87 (58%), females = 63 (42%), belonging to the urban setting of Delhi-national capital region (NCR). The age range of the participants was 18ā70 years (M = 31.05 years and SD = 12.3 years) and sample consisted of adult (Married = 58 (38.67%) and Unmarried = 92 (61.33%)) individuals.
Measure
On the basis of extensive review of literature, a pool of 88 potential items (63 positive and 25 negatively wo...
