Green Aviation

Reduction of Environmental Impact Through Aircraft Technology and Alternative Fuels

Emily S. Nelson, D.R. Reddy, Emily S. Nelson, D.R. Reddy

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781136318191
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Environmental Conservation & Protection
• Index: Biological Sciences

Aircraft emissions currently account for ~3.5% of all greenhouse gas emissions. The number of passenger miles has increased by 5% annually despite 9/11, two wars and gloomy economic conditions. Since aircraft have no viable alternative to the internal combustion engine, improvements in aircraft efficiency and alternative fuel development become essential.
This book comprehensively covers the relevant issues in green aviation. Environmental impacts, technology advances, public policy and economics are intricately linked to the pace of development that will be realized in the coming decades. Experts from NASA, industry and academia review current technology development in green aviation that will carry the industry through 2025 and beyond. This includes increased efficiency through better propulsion systems, reduced drag airframes, advanced materials and operational changes. Clean combustion and emission control of noise, exhaust gases and particulates are also addressed through combustor design and the use of alternative fuels. Economic imperatives from aircraft lifetime and maintenance logistics dictate the drive for "drop-in" fuels, blending jet-grade and biofuel. New certification standards for alternative fuels are outlined. Life Cycle Assessments are used to evaluate worldwide biofuel approaches, highlighting that there is no single rational approach for sustainable buildup. In fact, unless local conditions are considered, the use of biofuels can create a net increase in environmental impact as a result of biofuel manufacturing processes. Governmental experts evaluate current and future regulations and their impact on green aviation. Sustainable approaches to biofuel development are discussed for locations around the globe, including the US, EU, Brazil, China and India.

Table of Contents

About the book series

Editorial board

List of contributors

Foreword by Lourdes Maurice

Foreword by Thomas B. Irvine

Editors' preface

Part I. Environmental impacts of aviation

1. Noise emissions from commercial aircraft

Edmane Envia

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Sources of Aircraft Noise

1.2.1 Engine noise sources

1.2.1.1 Fan noise

1.2.1.2 Propeller noise

1.2.1.3 Core noise

1.2.1.4 Jet noise

1.2.2 Airframe noise sources

1.2.2.1 Trailing edge noise

1.2.2.2 Landing gear noise

1.2.2.3 Slat noise

1.2.2.4 Flap (side-edge) noise

1.2.2.5 Other noise sources

1.3 Aircraft Component Noise Levels (Example)

1.4 Summary

2. Aircraft emissions: gaseous and particulate

Changlie Wey and Chi-Ming Lee

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Gaseous Emissions

2.2.1 Carbon dioxide

2.2.2 Oxides of nitrogen

2.2.3 Carbon monoxide

2.2.4 Unburned hydrocarbons

2.2.5 Water vapor

2.2.6 Sulfur oxides

2.2.7 Methane and nitrous oxide

2.3 Particle Emissions

2.4 Alternative Fuels

2.5 Summary

3. Improvement of aeropropulsion fuel efficiency through engine design

Kenneth L. Suder and James D. Heidmann

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Early History of NASA Glenn Research Center Aeropropulsion Fuel Efficiency Efforts, 1943 To 1958

3.3 Introduction of Turbofan Engines and Improved Propulsive Efficiency

3.4 Energy Crisis of 1970s and NASA Aeronautics Response

3.5 NASA’s Role in Component Test Cases and Computational Fluid Dynamics Development

3.6 Current NASA Efforts at Reduced Fuel Consumption

3.6.1 Open-rotor propulsors

3.6.2 Ultra-high-bypass engine cycle research

3.6.3 Boundary-layer-ingesting engines

3.6.4 Engine core research

3.6.4.1 NASA ERA core compressor technology development efforts

3.6.4.2 NASA ERA core hot-section technology development efforts

3.7 Summary

Part II. Technologies to mitigate environmental impacts

4. Noise mitigation strategies

Dennis L. Huff

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Noise Reduction Methods

4.2.1 Engine components

4.2.1.1 Fan noise

4.2.1.2 Propeller noise

4.2.1.3 Core noise

4.2.1.4 Jet noise

4.2.2 Airframe components

4.2.2.1 Trailing edge noise

4.2.2.2 Landing gear noise

4.2.2.3 Slat noise

4.2.2.4 Flap (side-edge) noise

4.2.2.5 Other noise

4.3 Future Noise-Reduction Technologies

4.3.1 Engine noise reduction

4.3.1.1 Engine mid-term technologies

4.3.1.2 Engine long-term technologies

4.3.2 Airframe noise reduction

4.3.2.1 Airframe mid-term technologies

4.3.2.2 Airframe long-term technologies

4.3.3 Aircraft noise-reduction goals

4.3.3.1 Mid-term goals

4.3.3.2 Long-term goals

4.4 Summary

5. Advanced materials for green aviation

Ajay Misra

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Lightweight Materials

5.2.1 Polymer matrix composites

5.2.2 Carbon nanotubes for structural applications

5.2.3 Multifunctional materials

5.2.4 Cellular materials for sandwich structures

5.3 Smart Materials

5.3.1 Shape memory alloys

5.3.2 Piezoelectric materials

5.4 High-Temperature Materials

5.4.1 High-temperature Ni-base superalloys

5.4.2 Ceramic matrix composites

5.4.3 Environmental degradation challenges with increase in turbine operating temperatures

5.5 Materials for Electric Aircraft

5.5.1 Advanced magnetic materials

5.5.2 Materials with high electrical conductivity

5.5.3 Advanced insulation materials

5.5.4 Advanced capacitors for power electronics

5.6 Summary

6. Clean combustion and emission control

Changlie Wey and Chi-Ming Lee

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Products of Combustion

6.2.1 Fundamentals of NO_xformation

6.2.2 NOx emissions standards

6.3 Emissions Control

6.4 Engine NOx Control Strategies

6.4.1 Rich-burn, quick-quench, lean-burn combustion

6.4.2 Lean-burn, premixed, prevaporized combustors

6.4.3 Lean-burn staged combustors

6.4.3.1 Rolls-Royce lean-burn combustor

6.4.3.2 GE Aviation’s dual-annular combustor

6.4.3.3 GE Aviation’s twin-annular premixed system combustor

6.4.4 N+2 advanced low-NOx combustors

6.4.4.1 GE Aviation technology

6.4.4.2 Pratt & Whitney

6.5 Tradeoffs Involved IN Reducing NOX Emissions

6.6 Summary

7. Airspace Systems Technologies

Banavar Sridhar

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Current Airspace Operations

7.2.1 Separation Assurance

7.2.2 Traffic Flow Management

7.2.2.1 National Traffic Flow Management

7.2.2.2 Regional Traffic Flow Management

7.2.3 Terminal Area Operations

7.2.4 Surface Traffic Operations

7.2.5 Environmental Operations

7.3 Advanced Airspace Operations Concepts

7.3.1 Separation Assurance

7.3.2 Traffic Flow Management

7.3.3 Terminal Area

7.3.4 Surface Operations

7.3.5 Environmentally Friendly Operations

7.4 Next Generation Air Transportation System Technologies

7.4.1 Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast

7.4.2 Performance-Based Navigation

7.4.3 Weather Integration

7.4.4 Data Communication

7.4.5 Operations

7.4.5.1 Optimal Descent Trajectories

7.4.5.2 Wind-Optimal And User-Preferred Routes

7.4.5.3 Surface

7.4.6 Integrated technologies

7.4.7 Global harmonization

7.5 Conclusions

8. Alternative fuels and green aviation

Emily S. Nelson

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Aviation Fuel Requirements

8.2.1 Jet fuel specifications

8.2.2 Alternative jet fuel specifications

8.3 Fuel Properties

8.3.1 Effect of composition on fuel properties

8.3.2 Emissions

8.4 Biofuel Feedstocks for Aviation Fuels

8.4.1 Crop production for oil from seeds

8.4.2 Crop production for oil from algae

8.5 Manufacturing Stages

8.5.1 Dewatering, crude oil extraction, and preprocessing

8.5.2 Biorefining processes

8.5.2.1 Transesterification

8.5.2.2 Hydroprocessing

8.5.2.3 Other strategies

8.5.3 Coproducts

8.6 Life Cycle Assessment

8.7 Conclusions

9. Overview of alternative fuel drivers, technology options, and demand fulfillment

Kirsten Van Fossen, Kristin C. Lewis, Robert Malina, Hakan Olcay and James I. Hileman

9.1 Introduction

9.1 Alternative Fuel Drivers

9.2.1 Environment and human health

9.2.2 Economy

9.2.3 Energy security

9.3 Technology Options

9.4 Meeting Demand for Alternative Jet Fuel

9.5 Conclusions

10. Biofuel feedstocks and supply chains: how ecological models can assist with design and scaleup

Kristin C. Lewis, Dan F.B. Flynn and Jeffrey J. Steiner

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Challenges of Developing an Agriculturally Based Advanced Biofuel Industry

10.3 Potential Benefits of Scaled-Up Biofuel Feedstock Production

10.4 Regionalized Biomass Production and Linkage to Conversion Technology

10.5 Applying Ecological Models to Biofuel Production

10.5.1 Description of on ecological model for biofuel production

10.5.2 Scenarios to test biofuel production

10.6 Summary

11. Microalgae feedstocks for aviation fuels

Mark S. Wigmosta, Andre M. Coleman, Erik R. Venteris and Richard L. Skaggs

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Algae Growth Characteristics

11.2.1 Biophysics

11.2.2 Climate variability

11.2.3 Productivity

11.3 Large-Scale Production Potential and Resource Constraints

11.3.1 Land

11.3.2 Water

11.3.3 Nutrients

11.4 Two-Billion Gallon Per Year Case Study

11.4.1 Results

11.4.2 Discussion and conclusions

11.5 Summary and Conclusions

12. Certification of alternative fuels

Emily S. Nelson and Dhanireddy R. Reddy

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Background

12.2.1 Aviation fuel specifications

12.2.2 Foundational elements of the approval process

12.3 ASTM Certification Process

12.3.1 Basis of the approval process

12.3.2 Guidebook for the approval process (ASTM D4054)

12.3.2 Drop-in fuel specification (ASTM D7566)

12.3.4 Fischer-Tropsch-synthesizedparaffinic kerosene, 2006 to 2009

12.3.5 Hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids

12.3.6 Synthesized isoparaffin

12.4 U.S. Federal Aviation Administration Certification

12.5 Future Pathways

13. Environmental performance of alternative jet fuels

Hakan Olcay, Robert Malina, Kristin Lewis, Jennifer Papazian, Kirsten van Fossen, Warren Gillette, Mark Staples, Steven R.H. Barrett, Russell W. Stratton and James I. Hileman

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Evaluating Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Impacts of Alternative Fuels on Global Climate Change

13.2.1 Greenhouse gas life cycle analysis background

13.2.2 Overview of greenhouse gas life cycle analysis results for drop-in jet fuels

13.2.2.1 Conventional jet fuel from crude oil

13.2.2.2 Fischer-Tropsch jet fuel

13.2.2.3 Hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids jet fuel

13.2.2.4 Renewable jet fuel from sugars

13.2.3 Land-use change

13.2.4 Discussion of greenhouse gas life-cycle analysis results

13.2.5 Addition of non-CO₂ combustion emissions

13.3 Water

13.3.1 Water use and consumption

13.3.2 Water quality

13.4 Biodiversity

13.5 Conclusions

14. Perspectives on the future of green aviation

Jay E. Dryer

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Key Factors Affecting the Future of Green Aviation

14.2.1 Technology trends

14.2.2 Economic trends

14.2.3 Policy and regulatory trends

14.2.4 Social trends

14.3 Required Technology for Aircraft Development and Design

14.4 Required Technology for Greater Alternative Fuel Utilization

14.5 Possible Disruptive Technologies

14.6 Forecast

14.6.1 The steady-state case (or business as usual)

14.6.2 The pessimistic case

14.6.3 The optimistic case

14.7 Summary

Acronym list

Subject index

Book series page

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