Lexical Innovation in World Englishes

Cross-fertilization and Evolving Paradigms

Patrizia Anesa

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9780815363453
• eBook ISBN: 9781351109338
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Linguistics
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

Winner of the 2020 ESSE Book Award in English Language and Linguistics

Lexical Innovation in World Englishes contributes to the investigation of World Englishes by offering insights into the lexical developments of selected English varieties and their cross-fertilization potential. Taking a theoretical and empirical approach and focusing on neological formations, this book:

• discusses and problematizes different categorizations of English varieties and processes of word formation, considering the expansion of English across the world;
• draws on authentic examples taken from language corpora to gain a finer understanding of the varieties' transformations and of their reciprocal influences from a lexical perspective;
• aims to validate general considerations on the lexical features of these varieties of English and test them using corpora.

Including eight empirical case studies, this innovative text shows the importance of investigating lexical developments to observe the evolution of a variety while arguing for the need to go beyond a purely structuralist approach and to include a broader discursive and sociological perspective. Lexical Innovation in World Englishes is key reading for postgraduate students and researchers in the fields of World Englishes and language varieties.

Part 1

1 Introduction

1.1 Scope and aims

In recent decades, world varieties of English have received an ever-increasing level of scholarly attention. The body of research available on the topic is so extensive that any attempt at citing the relevant work is inevitably selective rather than representative. A wide range of approaches has been adopted, focusing, for example, on the historical developments of English varieties (Graddol/Leith/Swann 1996), their linguistic characteristics (Kortmann etal. 2004), or the social implications related to their use (Sharma 2011).

However, several works have often been guided by the desire to pinpoint the distinctive features of a variety by making use of methodologies which do not rest on any specific theory of language (Mahboob/Liang 2014). The very identification of English varieties is also frequently based on theoretical limitations, such as the coincidence of national borders with language boundaries. In this regard, Saraceni aptly notes that a crucial problematic aspect is the adoption of a perspective on language which stems from past nation-state ideologies, and which conceives “each language as a bounded system inextricably and primordially connected to a specific nation” (Saraceni 2014: 260). Although traditional varietal labels (such as Indian English or Nigerian English) will also be employed in this work for the sake of clarity, the main objective is to try to show the evolution of traditional varietal paradigms and to observe the phenomenon of cross-contamination.

This book focuses on lexical aspects of varieties of English with particular attention devoted to neological formations. Among the several approaches available when investigating the lexicon of a language, the emphasis on neologisms allows us to gain a more detailed understanding of lexical developments. It also enables us to discuss the level of productivity and creativity present in different varieties, as well as the reciprocal lexical influences which emerge.

More specifically, this study contributes to the investigation of World Englishes (WE) by offering insights into the lexical aspects of selected varieties. The Englishes observed present a vast array of neologisms, which are revealing elements in linguistic analysis in that they manifestly represent the dynamic aspect of a language, and mirror social mutations (see Aitchison 2005; Crystal 2006; Labov 2006).

In this respect, it should be pointed out that Web 2.0 technologies have led to considerable changes in language usage in that, for example, new word formations may spread and reach a high level of frequency (thus being perceived as widely acceptable by a vast range of speakers) before they have been entered into a dictionary. Moreover, technological changes have also been credited in some cases as being sources of the democratization of language usage.

This work has both a theoretical and an empirical focus. Theoretically, it aims to discuss and problematize different categorizations of World English varieties and to present word-formation processes in light of the global expansion of English. Empirically, it aims to validate general considerations on the lexical features of selected varieties, testing them through the use of corpora and lexicographic resources. Although language corpora may be employed for the study of a wide range of features (e.g. linguistic, textual, and pragmatic), their usage is here restricted to the investigation of lexical aspects, the study of which has long benefited from such tools. Thus, this book aims to provide a concise and up-to-date investigation of the developments and advancements in morphological theory, as well as considerations regarding the societal implications embodied in word-formation processes across the varieties discussed. The analysis is based on lexical features which are distinctive of a particular variety of English or which, in turn, are shared by many Englishes throughout the Anglophone world. Hence, the findings are to be placed within an evolving framework, which takes into account the shifting and dynamic nature of Englishes.

Given the growth of the so-called World Englishes, and the potential influences that they may have on the development of the English language in general, the topics examined in this book appear particularly relevant in gaining new insights into the lexical evolution that the language is undergoing. As will be shown, the creation of a new word is not merely a question of electing a label for a new concept, but labeling such a concept is the first step in the affirmation of the very existence of the concept itself (see Seargeant 2010). Processes related to word formation may assume different configurations in different cultures, and several scholars (see Alabi 2000; Bao 2005; Choi 2006; Adedimeji 2007; Macalister 2007) have focused on their linguistic behavior in cultures where English coexists with other language systems.

The main object of analysis of this book is a selected number of World Englishes, including those which may be more culturally stigmatized. The ultimate aim is not to simply collect descriptions of different English varieties but to investigate them through the use of authentic examples of language in use in order to gain a finer understanding of their lexical peculiarities and make considerations about their development and their reciprocal influences, from a lexical perspective.

Consequently, the theoretical framework goes beyond a purely structuralist approach and tries to include a broader discursive and sociological perspective by focusing on the use of new word formations in authentic situations. The method adopted is fundamentally qualitative; however, some quantitative insights are offered for some of the cases presented with corroborating purposes.

Thus, this volume will serve both as prolegomenon and supplement to other admirable works in the field with the aim of providing an introductory discussion on the theme of word-formation processes in World Englishes, as well as presenting empirical justifications for the observations presented.

Word formation in Englishes is by no means an untilled field. However, the distinctiveness of this book lies in its positioning at the crossroads between studies on varieties of English and on lexicology and, therefore, on a robust interdisciplinary basis. With this consideration, the objective is to go beyond a mere description of the lexical aspects which typify different varieties, and instead to attempt to observe the fluctuant state of English and offer critical reflections which embrace a sociological perspective, rather than adopting a prescriptive or normative standpoint.

1.2 Focus

The desire to concentrate on World Englishes derives from the acknowledgment that the role of these varieties is assuming a growing level of importance for a host of reasons, one of which is the increasing number of speakers. Moreover, although a considerable body of research on Englishes is now available, a discrepancy still exists between the scholarly attention devoted to the so-called standard varieties (see Section 2.4) and other varieties.

The focus of this work is on contemporary varieties. It is certainly true that a language cannot be completely understood without observing its historical developments (for a discussion of the history of English varieties see Momma/Matto 2008), but a diachronic analysis would go beyond the scope of this book. However, some occasional references to specific lexical developments will be made for clarifying purposes.

This book discusses some thorny issues with no clear-cut solutions. Many a linguist insists on the need to deepen our knowledge of varieties of English which differ (to varying degrees) from the so-called ‘native’ ones. However, several studies have adopted a rather descriptive approach and, while having the good intentions of shedding a light on lesser-known varieties, have only done so by simply comparing them with the traditional paradigms from which they originally aimed to deviate.

This work avoids entering the debate between, on the one hand, those who apologetically support the necessity of a fixed usage and see linguistic tolerance as a form of linguistic laxism and, on the other hand, those who defend the dynamicity of a language as one of its ineludible characteristics. Rather, it investigates selected English varieties, adopting an exploratory rather than a prescriptive approach. The attempt is to observe how these varieties evolve by analyzing their vocabulary and the main changes that it undergoes. It also describes recent trends in vocabulary developments, as well as the formation of neologisms and the reciprocal lexical influences emerging across varieties.

The analysis will be limited to a restricted number of varieties. Indeed, given the complexity of the notion of World Englishes, the inescapable contaminations among different Englishes, and the dynamicity of the language, it is deemed impossible to offer a comprehensive overview of all contemporary varieties. Without abstaining completely from references to the historical, phonetic and phonological, syntactical, textual, and pragmatic aspects, as are deemed critical to understanding fully the peculiarities of a certain variety, the focus is on the lexicon of different Englishes in the world. The need to adopt a lexical approach springs from the idea that the understanding of the vocabulary is decisive for the study of a certain language variety. Thus, lexical formations are used as a lens for observing the multitude of Englishes and their dynamic usages.

The selection is conducted according to given parameters such as the (necessarily approximate) number of speakers or the socio-cultural importance attributed to such varieties, without disregarding the flexibility and the subjectivity which are inherent in these parameters. Moreover, the level of standardization is also taken into account. This is not to say that only highly standardized varieties are considered relevant, but simply that the analysis will acknowledge their level of standardization and codification.

The concept of codification has been described inter alia by Schneider (2007), who offers an investigation into the codification of postcolonial varieties, and Tieken-Bonn van Ostade (2012), who focuses on the developments of the same process in England. For the purpose of this book, it is critical to highlight that codification can follow prescriptive or descriptive patterns. The former case presupposes the existence of rules which are specifically laid down at a theoretical level. Conversely, in the latter case, rules generally describe how the language is used in practice. Following well-established contemporary trends, the focus of this book is on critical description. The aim is not to see whether a variety complies, or not, with a predetermined set of rules, but to observe different forms of language in use or discourses. On a practical note, codification is often associated with grammar, spelling, punctuation, and, at times, pronunciation. However, vocabulary is also subject to such processes and represents the focus of this study.

Lexicography has been defined as the “first arm” of codification (Kachru 2005: 224) and, indeed, lexicographic resources play a significant role in the codification process of a language. In this respect, Schneider (2007: 52) talks about a “mutually reinforcing process”, in which “new national identities cause an awareness of the existence of new language varieties, which in turn causes the production of dictionaries of these new varieties; once such a dictionary is out it strengthens the distinct national and linguistic identity”. Clearly, the mere existence of a dictionary of a specific variety does not necessarily determine its wide sociolinguistic acceptance.

Codification and standardization may therefore appear as fragmented and inconsistent phenomena, whose description inevitably assumes an ephemeral and transient meaning, if not an unattainable one. However, these processes are interpreted in this work as fundamental and inherent in language development. Noticeably, the level of diversification, in terms of, among others, geographical and sociological contexts, types of users, and scope, makes it essential to reflect upon the impossibility of capturing a fixed standard and describing it in definite terms. This diversification inexorably generates the need for ontologies which may successfully represent the fluidity and flexibility of English varieties and which confirm the basic assumption that English is to be investigated as a language compound rather than as a mythical monolithic entity.

1.3 Structure of the book

This book is divided into three main parts. Part 1 is preparatory and introduces the conceptual underpinnings of this work. It also presents the rationale for the approach chosen. Part 2 sketches some of the definitional problems surrounding word-formation phenomena and describes the methodological framework applied. Part 3 is of an analytical nature; it presents selected cases, and subsequently offers some concluding remarks.

Chapter 1 illustrates the pivotal aims of the work and the research gap which the analysis aims to fill. It also offers preliminary explanations regarding the choice made to focus exclusively on lexical aspects.

Chapter 2 presents the genesis of the World Englishes model and discusses the theoretical background adopted for the investigation of neologisms and word-formation processes. More specifically, it describes the evolutionary processes of World Englishes and introduces the need to rethink traditional paradigms due to the complexity and the dynamicity which characterize varieties of English across the globe, as well as the necessity of keeping abreast of changing parameters when presenting a framework. It discusses complex issues related to the categorization of different varieties of English, presenting some of the available models from a critical perspective. It also deals with other crucial notions such as nativeness and standardization in l...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Lexical Innovation in World Englishes
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• List of Abbreviations
• Part 1
• Part 2
• Part 3
• Appendix 1
• Appendix 2
• References
• Index