People seldom learn from the mistakes of othersânot because they deny the value of the past, but because they are faced with new problems.
HISTORY OF STANDARDIZED TESTING
Critical to the future development of occupational and physical therapy as scientific and clinical disciplines is the generation of measurement tools specific to client needs. Many clinicians are depending upon tests developed by psychologists and other professionals with different types of clients or goals in mind. Worse, a trend of the 1970s in some areas of the subdisciplines was to avoid formal testing.
According to Nunnally, the movement toward standardized testing was generated in the last century by Darwinâs theory of evolution.4 The concept of âsurvival of the fittestâ led to interest in measuring individual differences in abilities of various types. Galton, the founder of the eugenics movement aimed at improving the human race, studied the heritability of human traits using tests of sensory discrimination. Sensory acuity was believed to be the basis of intellect. Interest was so great that people were willing to pay for the opportunity to be measured with Galtonâs techniques! His contributions were important for their explicit recognition of (1) the need for standardization in testingâthe concept that each individual should be tested with the same items under the same conditions and with standard instructions, (2) for emphasizing the importance of individual differences in abilities, and (3) for the development of correlational methods, later refined by Pearson, with which to analyze the collected data.
Binet and Simon developed the first test of global intelligence in 1905 at the behest of the French government which had recognized the need for developing a testing tool to evaluate and classify children who were too mentally deficient to profit from schooling.4 This work led to the concept of norms for performance of children at different ages, calculation of mental ages, and eventually the search for factors in human intelligence. Psychologists, such as Spearman and Thurstone, theorized that intelligence included a general factor, g, and specific factors, such as verbal, numerical, spatial, memory, reasoning, analogy, and perceptual abilities. They developed factor analysis as a methodological approach to studying human cognitive abilities. Piaget further advanced the study of cognitive performance by carefully studying the processes, rather than the content, of mental development. This produced a revolutionary and continuing impact on developmental psychology.
The standardized testing movement spread widely to include assessment of most areas of human ability, and made significant contributions in practical application to personnel selection, school admissions, and psychiatric and other medical diagnostic tasks.4 Rare is the person who has never taken a standardized test of some kind before reaching adolescence. Although standardized tests are continually criticized for labeling and lack of cultural validity for some groups in the population, such as minorities, they remain the best known means of sorting, classifying, diagnosing, and measuring progress.
Researchers have also studied the factors contributing to motor development, to motor learning, and to skilled motor performance. Developmental therapists have been interested in studying the relationships between motor milestones, developmental reflexes and reactions, and âqualityâ of movement. Though interested, little advancement has been made in the measurement of motor dysfunction or progress during therapy. Undoubtedly, progress has been slow in part because of the tremendous complexity involved in sorting out the many factors, both sensory and motor, that contribute to skilled motor performance. âQualityâ of movement is difficult to capture and describe because it does not consist of a single factor, but rather is a jargon term inclusive of coordination, postural control, and balance.5
Research on motor development has resulted in the identification of nine different aspects of gross and fine motor development in normal children from preschool age to adolescence.6 Specific factors implicated in gross motor abilities were speed, static and dynamic body balance, coordination, and strength. For fine motor performance, the identified factors were visual-motor tracking, response speed to a visual stimulus, visual-motor control of the hand, and upper extremity speed and precision in manipulation. Taken together, these factors were believed to include the elements of speed, precision, strength, balance, and coordination.
These factors unquestionably are important in motor performance of children with developmental disabilities as well. The abnormal sensorimotor system, however, presents a more complex measurement problem. For example, researchers have not yet been able to identify and isolate the specific factors operating on motor performance in the various types of central nervous system (CNS) dys-function. A review of the literature on motor control deficits in children and adults with cerebral palsy (CP), however, suggests that alterations in limb stiffness, reflex gain, sensory receptive fields, and movement synergies are candidates as factors in addition to those involved in normal motor performance.5,7â13 Finally, research in motor learning suggests that likely factors important in both normal and pathologic movement include repetition, knowledge of results, motor memory, perceptual factors, specificity of exercise relative to movement goals, and the environmental context.14
Occupational and physical therapists historically have been slow to develop and standardize tests for use in studying motor development, control, and learning, and for diagnosing problems or measuring progress in clients. As an example, in the area of motor development in children with cerebral palsy, several tests appeared in the 1950s and 1960s. They were based primarily on the Gesell motor milestones, but added special tests of speed or ability to perform activities involving rhythmic reversal of direction.15,16 These tests were aimed at quantifying motor performance in children with CP in a way that would produce developmental quotients or motor ages. Several important papers also were published which emphasized the importance of assessing and documenting motor development in quantitative ways that would reliably capture the progress of handicapped children.17,18 Nonetheless, a statement made in 1951 that âWe are unable to describe the patient with cerebral palsy in any way which lends itself to a statistical analysisâ15,p.698 remains true today.
The next decade produced almost no work on measurement of motor performance in CP other than gait analyses for assessment of outcome of orthopedic procedures13,19â20 and a few tests of specific functions. The 1980s saw the introduction of several new research tools for the study of pathokinesiology7,21â23 and introduction of the Movement Assessment of Infants,2 a promising new tool still under development, but limited to neurologic assessment in infancy.
Professionals in occupational therapy have accomplished more than those in physical therapy in developing tools for assessing children with mild neurologic dysfunction, such as the Sensory Integration and Praxis Test24 and the Miller Assessment for Preschoolers.1 Yet much remains to be done.