All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason
Who are the people in construction?
To answer the question ‘Who are the people in construction’, it is necessary to describe what construction is from the site operational angle. It is a known fact that construction makes use of a range of labour, material and equipment resources to realise a built physical asset, which could be a building, an airport or a dam. The organisation and use of required resources can be viewed at both strategic and operational levels (Halpin & Riggs, 1992). At the operational level, decisions and actions relating to the duration of the project and the use of people and machines must be considered. Physical or manual work involving the use of concrete, steel, glass, plastics and an infinite number of items must be undertaken to construct and finish a project, either directly by people or by machines directed by individuals. It is the production level in construction where people act as the ‘dynamic’ resource that either pulls or pushes input needed in operation. The output level in construction is where planning, design, execution, analysis and control measures work together to realise a facility (Halpin & Riggs, 1992; Koskela, 1997). The actors at the production level of construction can thus be located in the three broad categories illustrated in Table 1.1.
People are used in the realisation of physical production activities in construction. Craft workers are the individuals involved in manual work through various craft activities, and they outnumber technicians, professionals, and managers on a typical site and the industry as a whole. Professionals, managers, technicians, and artisans collectively undertake the transformation, flow and value aspects of production in construction (Arbulu, Tommelein, Walsh & Hershauer, 2003). This book, therefore, pays close attention to ‘boots on the ground’ managers, professionals, and workers as the people in construction (PiC) that every stakeholder should endeavour to value. Instead of only prioritising health and safety (H&S), valuing people is desirable since what someone values is not subjected to changes that are synonymous with priorities. In equivalent terms, most ‘boots on the ground’ people fall under the category of blue-collar workers on construction sites. The administrative professionals are involved in site management while the blue-collar workers are the people who undertake the physical work on project sites. The competencies and abilities of people determine the nature of construction operations and eventual project outcomes. Education, training, experience and competence are required pre-requisites for entry and movement within the three categories shown in Table 1.1. For instance, when competence is in place, treating people right would mean open entry doors that allow the progression of craft workers to technical and professional or managerial positions in the industry.
Table 1.1 Broad categories of people in construction operations
| Category | Description |
| Craft | Craft occupations carry out manual/physical work on construction sites. Roles include those of bricklayer, general worker, painter, roofer, scaffolder, plant operator, site joiner, and the like. Regarding entry, people enter the sector through formal or informal apprenticeship. Self-employment is, therefore, common among tradespeople. It is notable that a significant portion of people in the craft are non-permanent employees who often work under the direction of subcontractors or contractors who determine the working hours and the pay rate. Artisans can work as tradesmen and labour-only subcontractors. The majority of the general operatives also work in the informal sector where they are unrecorded in official statistics. In some parts of the world, migrant workers are located in the informal sector. Workers in the informal economy are not covered by social protection, labour legislation or other protective measures. A notable feature of the informal sector is the widely reported low and irregular pay that is underpinned by volatile hiring. Precarious work engagement is also found in these trades. Dangerous work involves part-time employment without the necessary social and legal protections. Craft workers often make up the largest portion of people found on a construction site. In general, artisans are involved in collective agreements arranged by their unions. |
| Technical | Technical roles in the construction industry support the work of professionals and managers. These roles have to use practical knowledge on sites without actually doing the manual work. Technical jobs on sites include those of the building technician, roofing technician, plant technician, site engineer, and the like. Vocational education and training that is supported by work experience are usually required for entry. Technicians could work to progress to supervisory and managerial roles in the industry. Their working hours are regular through the months. Although it is not common, part-time employment is also used to engage technicians. They also work for contractors and subcontractors (to a lesser extent) who apply statutory provisions and protective measures. Among technicians, job security is relatively stable, and their pay depends on abilities, seniority, and qualifications. Technicians may also benefit from provisions of collective agreements. However, in some countries, technicians are not included in collective agreements. |
| Professional / Managerial | Professional and managerial workers in the sector oversee the spectrum of all construction activities, from conception to commission, through design, procurement, planning, and management. At the top, there are senior executives and other business-related roles. At the middle and site operational levels, there are diverse functions that are not limited to those of civil engineer, construction manager, project manager or quantity surveyor, among others. These workers are employed to do regular work in the sector with a measure of job security and compensation benefits. They tend to be fewer than technicians on a regular project, and they also benefit from collective agreements. |
Source: Several authors such as Langford and Agapiou (2007), for illustration purposes only
The pressure to optimise the performance of people while balancing the achievement of cost, environment, health, safety, quality and productivity objectives is a source of tension in practice. For example, while getting the job done as quickly and cheaply as possible may be pushing practices on site, the real focus of contractors would seem to be on maintaining an appearance of safety (Paap, 2006). Thus, work pressure has been increasing over the last decade, based on the reported low productivity in the construction industry where research and development (R&D) are lagging behind the money spent in manufacturing, aerospace and other industries (Forbes & Ahmed, 2010). While the need for productivity improvements is not disputed and could be justified with various forms of information, the issues that impact upon the health, safety and well-being of PiC cannot be overlooked. People should enjoy their working conditions in the industry while other stakeholders should be in agreement about keeping them alive, healthy and safe – at all costs.
Concerns around PiC have gained traction in construction management research and practice in recent years. Evidence from three books that have addressed people within the context of what they do in the construction industry suggests that the contributions of individuals in the sector cannot be rivalled. In People and Organisational Management in Construction, Naoum emphasises the fact that the progress of a construction firm is dependent on the clarity of operations, the quality of its people, the availability of the required resources and the appropriateness of the structure and management systems used by the organisation (Naoum, 2011). Through organisational and human behaviour concepts, this book shows the centrality of people regarding their managerial and social functions that determine effectiveness. The book focuses on the strategic or business aspect of construction management, which provides a systemic approach to what people do at work regarding their interactions that decide the success or failure of an organisation.
In the edited book, Human Resource Management in Construction: Critical Perspectives, Dainty and Loosemore (2013) continue the emphasis on the need to appreciate people more. The critical perspectives shared in this book targets a crucial strategic issue in construction – human resource management (HRM). The HRM in the book mentioned above brings to the fore the lived experiences and realities of people working in the industry (Dainty & Loosemore, 2013). By so doing, it outlines many issues to be addressed concerning the nature of construction HRM. The skewness of employment and HRM practice in the industry in favour of outsourcing and self-employment with its attendant complexity are well articulated (Dainty & Loosemore, 2013). Among other calls for action, this book questions practices that claim to improve performance and productivity (and inadvertently do so at the peril of people). While recognising the usefulness of current construction HRM practices, this book draws attention to the need to evolve new thinking about people management in the construction industry. (Box 1 provides a critique of people management.)
In an earlier book co-edited by Dainty, Green, and Bagilhole (2007), critical discourses on the employment of people and the culture in the construction industry were highlighted. The book, People and Culture in Construction, acknowledges the people-intensive nature of the project-based industry where the impact of competitive tendering, fragmentation, the large number of small firms, the limited number of large businesses, cyclical demand, fluctuation in market, structural flexibility, cultural diversity, different employment regimes, fixed location of products, male-dominated workforce, temporary work teams and mobility of labour affect everyone – internal and external (Dainty, Green, & Bagilhole, 2007). Several issues that have remained pervasive in the industry have been addressed, and the contributors to the book advocate the following (Dainty et al., 2007).
• A better understanding of industry employment practices and their corresponding impact on workers is required.
• A way to prevent employers from running away from their skill development responsi...
