The Shifting Global World of Youth and Education

Mabel Ann Brown

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN:
  9781138210745
• eBook ISBN:
  9781315454511
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

The Shifting Global World of Youth and Education explores how increasing migration and population changes are having an unprecedented impact on global education. Given that the number of children of migrant background is growing internationally, there is a need for increasing awareness of the educational attainment and cultural integration of this population group. This book presents international perspectives on migration and youth and analyses what kinds of effects such demographic changes are having on educational systems around the world.

The chapters in this volume provide a fascinating insight into how countries around the world are dealing with loss or growth in their young population as well as changes to their education systems. Written by specialist academics from the relevant country, the book covers Cuba, Lithuania, the United Kingdom, the United States, Finland, Greece, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Latvia, China, Australia, India, Italy and Poland. Taking into consideration the countries' social and political context, the chapters discuss educational issues surrounding curriculum, assessment and the opportunities available for the support of young people. Conclusions are drawn about what could be done in the future for the benefit of both the migrant and the existing populations.

The Shifting Global World of Youth and Education will be of great interest to academics, researchers and postgraduate students in the disciplines of education, sociology, political sciences and social work. The book will also give secondary teachers, teaching assistants, social workers and youth workers the opportunity to reflect on their role within a national and international context.

1 Introduction

Mabel Ann Brown

This book, The Shifting Global World of Youth and Education, explores international perspectives on education and youth at a time when many countries are experiencing aging populations and mass migration. For example, ‘More than a million migrants and refugees crossed into Europe in 2015 compared with just 280,000 the year before,’ and per the BBC, 2016 this scale of change was continuing with ‘135,000 people arriving in the first two months of 2016.’ These people are coming from Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Morocco, Iran and Somalia and all with very mixed educational backgrounds or even no educational background and ‘30% are under 18 years old’ (Brussels, 2016) and if they are under eighteen, they will all need educating, but the change is so rapid that in the UK alone the population is predicted to grow by a ‘city the size of Liverpool each year’ (Migration Watch, 2017).

The map below demonstrates where the European migrants are moving from and to. As can be seen from the map, the migration is coming from a wide area and this map is only showing the European movement.

Immigration is as Migration Watch (2017) claims ‘a natural part of an open economy and society,’ but it is the scale of the movement that is the problem. For example, in 1997 net migration to the UK was just 47,000 but in 2016 the estimate was 335,000 (Migration Watch, 2017). In The Week (2016e: 7) the International Organisation for Migration reported a further ‘37,000 refugees and other migrants arrived in Greece and Italy’ since the beginning of 2016 and prior to 1 February 2016, this figure is described ‘as ten times as many as in 2015.’ Clearly this demonstrates a continuing upward trend. In fact, ‘Luxembourg has 46% first and second generation immigrant students’ within its school system and ‘Canada has just accepted 30,000 Syrian refugees over the past year’ (Education Canada, 2017).

This kind of population growth ‘is unsustainable,’ as Migration Watch (2017) points out, but many countries do need some migration to fill vacant job roles and enable society to continue to function at a satisfactory level particularly as the post–Second World War babies are now elderly and therefore there is an ever-growing reliance on youth, whatever their nationality or origin but regulated and unregulated migration can disturb the status quo.

For instance, Sweden in 2015 experienced significant numbers of migrants including refugees. The changes in Sweden have been so significant this has even created a gender imbalance that is greater than China’s one-child policy, if these migrants all decided to stay per BBC Radio 4 (Feb 2016). The ratio of boys to girls in Sweden if the 16- to 17-year-olds were all granted asylum would be 123 boys to 100 girls. Such changes create a concern regarding the gender balance as ‘the gender distribution of immigrants to the EU member states in 2013 was 53% men compared with 47% women’ (Eurostat Statistics, 2015). In effect, the world is not only dealing with mass migration but also with a growing gender imbalance potentially. However, this book will not consider gender imbalance, but rather it will focus on education and youth and the need for some sustainable migration.

Figure 1.1 The migration routes to Europe and the United Kingdom. Source: Shuttershock

The aim of this book is to explore what is happening not just in England or the UK but also comparatively in Austria, Australia, China, Cuba, England, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and the United States to better understand what is happening as preparation for a working life. UNICEF (2012: 16) claims secondary education provides adolescents with ‘skills and ability to think critically’ whilst shaping ‘attitudes, values and aspirations’ that enable them to function socially and ‘gain employment.’ Yet a significant amount of learning also takes place beyond the classroom. This can be referred to as ‘Non-formal education’ (UNICEF, 2012: 16) and this can happen at any time, anywhere, but it can include ‘life skills, work skills’ and ‘adult literacy.’ In many Western countries education is a formal classroom process leading to employment, but for the many migrants their earlier education will have been very different particularly as their homelands may have a different system or even no system and certainly a different language of tuition.

Thus, the content of this book covers many nations and therefore has a wide-ranging reach, including countries from more than one continent. The rationale for choosing these countries is that they offer a wide perspective and are much influenced by history, both politically and economically and by ‘geography, gender and culture and the societies in which they live’ (UNICEF, 2012: 37). Thus, the chapters consider countries in different parts of the world with varying histories, cultural traditions and differences. Each chapter in the book demonstrates a different point such as the need for change or the need for more social stability or the dilemmas that are facing educationists in the face of rapid social changes in different contexts. The chapters are organised into four sections, these are, countries facing an identity challenge: Cuba and Lithuania; countries struggling with incoming migrants: The United Kingdom, the United States, Finland, Greece, Germany and Austria; countries suffering because some of their population have left, Hungary, Latvia and China and finally countries facing educational challenges such as India, Australia, Italy and Poland. The sections do overlap and some chapters could be relevant in other sections.

Context of mobility globally

All the countries are either receiving or losing citizens through migration; therefore, it would be difficult just to focus on those countries receiving migrants without considering the issues caused in other countries by their departure. This introductory chapter explores the current state of change and the impact instability is having on young people and education and the possible impact it could have on the elderly and vulnerable.

In previous years populations have at times in history been more stable and ‘indigenous people have had a long-embedded place in their physical and spiritual mapping of the world, recognising and revering the basic interactions of humans and habitats’ (Gaudelli, 2015: 19) creating a norm and a sense of interaction between ‘place, person and experience.’ Dewey (cited in Gaudelli, 2015: 20) believed location was significant to thought and this lead to continuity and adaptations to situations which in turn were ‘gradually transferable to the world beyond.’ This continuity and adaptation process has been changed to become a much quicker process if migrants are to settle and integrate.

Stability and gradual change meant that nations adapted slowly to new happenings, however currently the migration changes are swift and significant, not allowing for gradual adaptation. Bourdieu cited in Connolly, Kelly and Smith (2009: 219) represented a ‘set of predispositions and taken for granted ways of thinking and acting’ that became implanted in us or internalised and reflects previous experiences which become our habitus. Thus, our habitus is linked to a ‘particular social context’ or ‘a set of relations’ or Bourdieu’s ‘fields’ (Connolly, Kelly and Smith 2009: 220). However, for many young people this habitus can be very different to the environment or context that they have moved into. As Rambaree, Berg and Thomson (2016 quoting Hammond 2004) say ‘adaptation to the new bio-physical environment is much more than just getting used to the climate and the geography’; it is about being ‘‘uprooted and transplanted’ with a broken tie to their own natural bio-physical environment.’

The current changes, fighting, famine, poverty and a desire for a better life have left many young people uprooted and this book explores the consequences for all those who are affected. To consider this, Brown’s introductory chapter will look at the educational changes and needs; it will consider integration and identity and the need for a common language and future workforce.

Education as a process

Education services are organised initially for a stable population with a projected number of population in mind yet 30% of these migrants are under the age of 18 and need to be included into the system. However, the demand is so great that there are insufficient school places in some countries (Migration Watch, 2017) and the facilities that are available struggle with the changing cohorts. Yet if the education system we and other countries provide is appropriate the whole of society will benefit. UNICEF (2012: 3) suggests that if it is not, then we will all ‘suffer tomorrow the social and economic consequences of a generation less equipped to become fully contributing members of society.’

The progression of young people from education to employment is particularly important as ‘educational systems are sites of social reproduction that offer unequal access to socially relevant knowledge to different socioethnic groups,’ Zentai cited in Szalai and Schiff (2014: 84). Zentai continues this view by saying that schooling ‘largely determines young peoples’ later position in the labour market and general social status … shaping identities, community ties and career aspirations.’ What is unclear is to what extent this is the case or can there be greater faith in the systems as Gibb (2016: 4) stated in GOV.UK that ‘schools can and must be engines of social mobility.’ Each country has its own systems and some have proved to be more successful than others per the OECD. In order of OECD (2016a) ranking, the countries are first South Korea, second Japan, third Russia, fourth Singapore, fifth Finland, sixth UK, seventh USA, eighth Denmark, ninth China, tenth Netherlands, eleventh Israel, twelfth Canada, thirteenth Germany, fourteenth Hong Kong, fifteenth Ireland, sixteenth Norway, seventeenth Slovenia, eighteenth Sweden, nineteenth France and twentieth Hungary. The other countries all rank lower than these named. This suggests that the best systems are in certain countries like South Korea, whilst other countries are not supporting their young people sufficiently. However, the term ‘education’ can apply to many aspects of learning; it can be what we understand by academic learning or it can be learning about life and survival. In this book, the term ‘education’ is taken initially to be the formal system adopted by most Western countries.

As Brussels (2016: 1) for the European Commission points out, ‘given their young age education is an extremely powerful tool to promote their integration into society.’ Education is a powerful tool but the traditional methods are no longer as appropriate. Different countries are using budget support and innovative measures to deal with the problem (Brussels, 2016), including ‘transition classes’ in Austria (see the chapter in this book), additional teachers and social workers in Germany (the chapter in this book) and changes in the Early Years in Sweden. Finland has increased its financial support and France is planning to open up schools for parents whilst Belgium is increasing reception classes and the ‘number of language teachers’ (Brussels, 2016). The Greeks are using ‘extra tutoring in English, Greek and Maths’ Drosopulos (2016).

The challenge is educat...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Figure
• List of tables
• Acknowledgements
• List of contributors
• Abbreviations/terminology
• 1 Introduction
• Part 1 Countries facing an identity challenge
• Part 2 Countries struggling with incoming migration
• Part 3 Countries which are suffering because some of their population have left
• Part 4 Countries facing educational challenges
• Index