Assessing Command and Control Effectiveness

Dealing with a Changing World

Peter Berggren, Staffan Nählinder, Erland Svensson

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2017
• eBook ISBN: 9781317177999
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Industrial Engineering
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Assessing Command and Control Effectiveness: Dealing with a Changing World offers a description of the current state of Command and Control (C2) research in imperfect settings, showing how a research process should assess, analyse and communicate results to the development cycle of methods, work, manning and C2-technology. Special attention is given to the development of C2 research methods to meet the current and coming needs. The authors also look forward towards a future where effective assessment of C2 abilities are even more crucial, for instance in agile organisations. The purpose of the C2 research is to improve the process and make it more effective while still saving time and money. Research methods have to be chosen carefully to be effective and simple, yet provide results of high quality. The methodological concerns are a major consideration when working under such circumstances. Furthermore, there is often a need for a swift iterative development cycle, and thus a demand to quickly deliver results from the research process. This book explains how field research experimentation can be quick, simple and effective, being able to draw valid conclusions even when sample sizes are small and resources are limited, collecting empirical data using measures and procedures that are minimally intrusive.

Chapter 1
Introduction

P. Berggren, S. Nählinder and E. Svensson

Assessing Command and Control Effectiveness – Dealing with a Changing World

There is constant development in military command and control. New systems are developed and old systems are used in new contexts. This concerns methods, work, manning and command and control technology. There is clearly a need to have a research process to support this development. The research process should assess, analyse and communicate results to the development cycle. It should be effective, meaning it should be quick and simple, cost-effective while still being able to draw valid conclusions. Further, it should be done without disturbing the ongoing command and control work.

This book offers a description of the current state of command and control research in settings where sample sizes are small, opportunities are few and resources are limited. Special attention is given to the development of command and control research methods to meet the current and coming needs.

The purpose of command and control research is to improve the command and control process and make it more effective while still saving time and money. The research methods have to be chosen carefully to be effective and simple, yet provide results of high quality. Methodological concerns are a major consideration when working under such circumstances. Further, there is often a need for a swift iterative development cycle, and thus a demand to quickly deliver results from the research process. This book explains how field research experimentation can be quick, simple and effective, even though sample sizes are small and resources are limited. In such conditions, empirical data often need to be collected using measures and procedures that are minimally intrusive.

In classical experimentation it is common to use control groups and to manipulate the conditions of interest in a controlled fashion. In the command and control setting it is difficult to design research studies using classical experimentation. The problems and situations often occur rarely, and only a few practitioners are specialized and experienced. The command and control environment is dynamic and complex and the possibilities for experimental control are few. This means that classical experimental designs are very hard to achieve, and that traditional techniques for analysis might not give a truthful or complete picture. The limits on available data require special experimental designs, procedures and statistical techniques to be applied.

This book will provide examples on how dynamic assessment can be performed, explain how dynamic situations can be assessed and analysed, explain the benefits and concerns regarding dynamic measurements and provide empirical examples and discuss differences and similarities between civil and military command and control.

The book furthers the research by showing how command and control studies can be performed in field settings characterized by dynamic and complex situations, describing how dynamic command and control situations can be assessed using dynamic methods and advanced statistical procedures, and giving examples of how the stakeholders and end users can be involved in the command and control research process and be provided with quick feedback.

Overview of the Book

After this introductory chapter, the reader will be presented with theoretical foundations for the assessment of effectiveness in the command and control domain. After that, the reader will be provided with several empirical studies of command and control effectiveness. Before the concluding chapter, a look forward is presented with ideas about agile command and control in the near future.

Analysing Tactical Cognitive Systems

Norlander describes how, in military operations and emergency management, operators and commanders must rely on distributed systems for safe and effective mission accomplishment. Tactical commanders and operators tend to encounter violent threats, and critical demands are frequently imposed on cognitive capacity and reaction time. In the future, decisions will be made in situations where operational and system characteristics are non-linear, that is, ‘small’ actions or decisions may have serious, even irreversible, consequences for an entire mission. Such situations, in short, possess distinct, complex and dynamic properties.

The objective of this research is to integrate relevant, effective methods and tools that improve command and control procedures, as well as the design of future command and control systems. A broad research approach is pursued and theoretical and practical perspectives combined to discover novel and effective ways to accomplish the objective. Experiences from this work make it possible to develop theories, methods and tools for modelling and analysis to prevent failures and accidents in precarious time-critical systems control in emergency response operations and military missions. Critical skills of individual operators and teams, mission resource management, decision-making and overall unit performance constitute the primary fields of study.

This chapter reports research work which develops an integrated approach to information-centred systems analysis. This approach, in turn, supports future command and control systems development, as well as future research on related topics.

Designing Case Studies Using a Systems Analysis Approach

Wikberg explains that in development projects, it might be difficult to fully apply the experimental method. Combining complex systems is not always possible in a laboratory setting and too much control means losing the dynamics of real operations. This chapter outlines an approach to designing case studies based on systems analysis. The main argument is that a systems analysis approach makes it possible to more efficiently make advances in a development process. The concepts of, and practical implications from, case studies and systems analysis are elaborated. Several issues are raised. First, the problem of defining which factors to include and how to select corresponding empirical indicators is addressed. This is suggested that this can be handled by comparing common and unique variations between information sources with a preliminary analysis of the system analysis subject. Second, it is recommended to avoid formalized procedures for the system analysis. Third, case studies do not necessarily aim at generalized knowledge valid in ‘all’ relevant situations. Thus, the validity of the case study should be assessed in the context of the aim of the development process. Finally, the question whether case studies qualify to be labelled ‘science’ is raised. The position is that each case study should be judged individually. Carefully designed studies are as important in a practical project as in science.

Dynamic Measures of Effectiveness in Command and Control

Svensson and Nählinder point out that classical experiment designs and statistical techniques are great tools in situations where there is control over the experiment conditions, and where the focus of attention is analysis of (static) differences between two or more conditions. When conducting research in a command and control setting, on the other hand, classical experimental procedures and statistical techniques must be deemed insufficient. A command and control environment is dynamic and complex, and the possibilities for experimental control are few. Here, the aim is to understand dynamic relationships between variables. Technical systems and operators (and teams of operators) interact over time to reach a shared goal. Furthermore, focused variables are usually abstract. For instance, in the development and operational evaluation of command and control systems, some important variables are mental workload (information load), situational awareness (situation assessment, understanding, attention) and aspects of individual and team performance (decision-making). Such variables all change over time as a function of both external and internal factors. Statistical measures adapted to these situations are therefore obviously needed. Dynamic processes and changes over periods of time are in focus, and dynamic measures in terms of repeated, or time series, measures are called for. Dynamic measures generate information that cannot be made available using traditional experiment designs and questionnaires. By means of time series measures, relationships between dynamic changes of variables (cross-correlations) and their ability to predict future events can be estimated.

Organizational Agility – An Overview

In this chapter Johansson and Pearce present a model of organizational agility based on a review of relevant research material. The theories and views presented in the model could be used to inform current and future research activities. The model is based on four themes. First, there is a theme of awareness or the ability to anticipate some effect on an organization: being proactive. Secondly, there is a theme of resilience and delivery of an appropriate response from a range of available response options: being reactive. Thirdly, there is a theme stressing continual organizational learning, which is also synonymous with being reflexive and adaptable. Fourthly, there is a theme concerning failure of an organization to respond effectively and thereby being able to absorb shock from an unexpected stimulus. It is concluded that agility comes at a cost and that several trade-offs have to be considered when trying to increase organizational agility.

Characteristics of Command and Control in Response to Emergencies and Disasters

The focus of this chapter by Trnka and Woltjer is the domain of command and control in emergency and disaster response operations. Response operations, as well as related command and control work, are characterized by loosely defined and shifting goals, versatile situations, time pressure, high stakes and the involvement of multiple organizations. The unique contexts and varying circumstances of response operations have an impact on how collaborative work and interactions among commanding personnel and organizations emerge. This emergence of response operations poses specific challenges and demands on commanding personnel and the organizations involved in this type of operation. The chapter identifies the main characteristics of different types of response operations and their implications for command and control. The focus is thereby on the need-based character of emergency and disaster response operations, as well as the need for adaptations of the responding organizations and their command and control structures. The article also describes key differences and commonalities between command and control in emergency and disaster response operations and military operations, and discusses their implications for joint operations.

Empirical Studies of Command and Control Centres at the Swedish Air Force

Svensson, Rencrantz, Marklund and Berggren describe how command and control environments are dynamic and complex settings with complicated technical systems where teams of operators interact to reach shared goals. The chapter presents two studies where evaluation techniques with dynamic measures were used. The studies sought to (a) develop evaluation methodologies for dynamic environments, (b) to validate the techniques and (c) to demonstrate their practicability in operational settings. The studies were conducted in air operations centres of the Swedish Air Force. Operators from the Swedish Air Force participated in both studies: a simulated peace support operation scenario in an operational setting, and operational activities as normal procedures. Data in terms of time series were collected by means of digital questionnaires, and items on aspects of mental workload, situation awareness, performance and vigilance were answered repeatedly. By means of factor analysis and structural equation modelling of data from the peace support study, a model which shows the causal relations between mental workload, individual performance and team performance was derived.

The findings give prominence to the repeated measurement technique and time series analysis. Dynamic factor analysis and structural equation modelling prove to be successful techniques for predicting changes of dynamic events. Individual predictions can be employed to diagnose and outline the operational status of groups or positions in command and control systems such as the command and control centres of the Swedish Air Force.

The Advance of a Valid and Reliable Tool for Assessing Shared Understanding

Berggren argues that team cognition is central to command and control where several people work together to accomplish a shared goal. A central research question within the command and control domain has been to assess the shared understanding of the common operational picture – to what degree do decision-makers share the same view and to what extent does that have an impact on their operational performance? Berggren presents the development of a tool for assessing shared understanding over six different experiments. The first experiment was conducted in a laboratory environment using students and non-specific questions. The second experiment used a military training facility with fighter pilots and the same non-specific questions. In the third experiment a microworld simulation was used with students rank-ordering the priorities of specific items. In the fourth experiment tank commanders rank-ordered the priorities of specific items. The fifth experiment was carried out in a military tank battalion training facility with commanders prioritizing self-generated items. The sixth study used trained participants prioritizing self-generated items in a controlled microworld experiment. As a result of these experiments, Berggren suggests a method that is quick to prepare, easy to use and easy to understand, and that captures shared understanding within a team of highly trained professionals.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Armoured Brigade Staff

In this chapter, Thunholm, Berggren and Wikberg present a study of the effectiveness of an armoured brigade headquarters (HQ) in three specific respects: (a) how the HQ staff is dimensioned in relation to its tasks, (b) how staff processes (i.e. planning, execution and coordination/decision) work and (c) how the HQ’s Standard Operating Procedure and battle rhythm function, especially in the light of the HQ’s organization and work processes. Designed as a survey study, the work is based on: (a) a military command team effectiveness instrument (CTEF 2.0); (b) measurement of workload according to Borg’s scale; (c) subjective quality assessments of the brigade HQ’s orders and reports; and (d) verification that the brigade HQ follows its Standard Operating Procedure. Fifty-four staff members of an armoured brigade HQ participated, facing the challenges of a peace support/peacekeeping operation exercise.

Organizational Effectiveness at the Kosovo Force Headquarters

Granåsen and Marklund present the work performed by NATO RTO HFM-163 towards improving the organizational effectiveness of coalition operations, focusing on a case study of organizational effectiveness performed at NATO HQs in Kosovo. The aim was to validate a model of organizational effectiveness for a multinational coalition HQ developed within the HFM-163 project. According to this model, a number of input factors are involved, relating to people, structures, processes and culture, all affecting shared awareness, decision-making and information sharing in a multinational HQ.

The results show that the organizational effectiveness model developed by the HFM-163 research team is valid. A number of factors do have an effect on operative goals (i.e. information sharing, decision-making and shared awareness); some factors are of greater importance than others. For example, flexibility, leadership effectiveness, openness to diversity, trust and improvement orientation all have an impact on operational goals. Knowing which factors influence organizational effectiveness in a multinational HQ is a first important step in effectiveness improvement. The work of HFM-163 is a successful example of the benefits of a single research organization participating in a multinational research constellation such as that within the NATO RTO programme.

Agility in Command and Control – Functional Models of Cognition

Johansson discusses command and control agility in the light of functional models of cognition that are being used in the field of cognitive systems engineering. It is suggested that a command and control organization, just like any purposeful organism, must have or be able to execute a number of basic cognitive functions like goal setting, monitoring of such goals, regulation of action and so forth. In traditional and current command and control organizations and systems, such functions are bound to specific structures. In order to be command and control agile, the command and control organization/system must be able to move these functions across structures. In this context, Hollnagel’s extended control model is used as an example of how a functional model of a cognitive system can be placed in a military context in order to illustrate agile command and control. It is suggested that context as well as the interaction between the antagonists and surrounding sources of power in the situation are important determinants for the degree of agility that is demanded in a specific situation. The agile command and control organization must be able to move between different states of stability and allocate and distribute their functions to fit evolving situations in order to survive.

Chapter 2
Analysing Tactical Cognitive Systems: Theories, Models and Methods

A. Norlander

Introduction

Complex dynamic processes and operations can be characterized as high-risk activities, where human team members and artefacts perform tasks together that require almost extreme mobility, efficiency, agility and endurance. Emergency management, air traffic control and military operations are all examples of missions where performance heavily – and increasingly – relies on distributed systems including n...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• List of Contributors
• Forewords
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Analysing Tactical Cognitive Systems: Theories, Models and Methods
• 3 Designing Case Studies Using a Systems Analysis Approach
• 4 Dynamic Measures of Effectiveness in Command and Control
• 5 Organizational Agility – An Overview
• 6 Characteristics of Command and Control in Response to Emergencies and Disasters
• 7 Empirical Studies of Command and Control Centres at the Swedish Air Force
• 8 The Advance of a Valid and Reliable Tool for Assessing Shared Understanding
• 9 Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Armoured Brigade Staff
• 10 Organizational Effectiveness at the Kosovo Force Headquarters: A Case Study
• 11 Agility in Command and Control – Functional Models of Cognition
• 12 Conclusions
• Index