1 Introduction
1 The existence of a bill of lading presupposes the existence of a contract of carriage.1,2 This contract of carriage may be an explicit, written3 contract such as a charter party, or an implicit, verbal one, the existence of which is proven indirectly by the later issuance of the bill of lading.
2 In essence, a contract of carriage is a simple, two-party contract between a shipper and a carrier for the transport of certain goods from a place of departure to a place of destination.4 Sometimes, the constellation stays as simple as that, and no third parties are or become involved. This is the case when the shipper is also the consignee of the carried goods. This can happen, for instance, when a manufacturer ships semi-finished products from one of its locations to another for further processing.5
3 In most cases, however, the consignee is not the same person as the shipper. The contract of carriage is still made between the shipper and the carrier, but there is, right from the very start, the presence of a third party looming in the background. In the port of destination, the consignee, holder of the bill of lading, will be able to claim delivery of the cargo from the carrier. Conversely, the consignee may be bound to pay freight or other costs to the carrier. So, even though the consignee did not negotiate or enter into the initial contract of carriage, there clearly is a relation between the consignee and the carrier, with rights and obligations on both sides. The question then, of course, is what is the nature of this relationship? How and when does it come into being?6 These questions are the main focus of the present research.
4 The question what the exact nature is of the relationship between the carrier and the holder is not always explicitly raised, let alone answered. Sometimes, the relationship is readily assumed to be of a certain nature, without much analysis or reasoning. Standard or preconceived ideas, however, may turn out to be incorrect upon closer inspection. The relevance of the research lies firstly in recalling to the attention the fact that the nature and characteristics of the relationship between the carrier and the holder of the bill of lading is indeed a question which merits to be raised explicitly and the answer to which is not obvious or self-evident. The relevance of the research further lies in the attempt that is made to find a solid and convincing answer to the questions indicated above, which is relevant both on a theoretical and on a practical level. The theoretical importance of these questions hardly needs explaining. A coherent legal system requires a theoretical basis for every legal concept that is part of that system.7 The importance is, however, more than merely theoretical, of interest to academics only.8 Even today, the relation between the carrier and the bill of lading holder has not been entirely charted. To what extent, for example, is a third party holder bound by statements or agreements in the initial contract of carriage, that are not included or referred to in the bill of lading? Does a third-party holder become liable for events that predate his holdership, such as demurrage in the loadport? The theory that explains how and why the relation between the carrier and the holder comes into being will also provide the answer, or at least the building blocks to construe the answer, to new problems in this respect.
5 That theory will also need to bring clarity in more complex situations than the one sketched above, where the bill of lading is directly transferred from the shipper to the consignee. In certain trades, it is customary for the bill of lading to be negotiated several times before ending up in the hands of the party that will present it in the port of destination. What is the legal position of those intermediate holders, who, for a certain period of time, hold the bill of lading but do not present it to the carrier to obtain delivery? Do they have rights against the carrier, and perhaps even more importantly, does the carrier have rights against such intermediate holders? Is it possible, for instance, for the carrier to collect the freight or other costs from an intermediate holder if the ultimate holder is unable to pay?
That this is not unimportant is illustrated by the case of The Moa.9 Because of engine problems, the vessel had dropped anchor in dedicated anchoring grounds in the river Scheldt. When the tide turned, however, the anchor dragged and the vessel went partially aground, requiring tug assistance to be refloated again. Part of the salvage award was initially paid by the cargo interests. The cargo interests however claimed that the engine problems and the subsequent stranding were caused by unseaworthiness of the vessel, and therefore sued the carrier to recover their payment to the salvors. The Antwerp Court of Appeal held that such a claim is a claim under the bill of lading, and can only be brought by the party that held the bill of lading at the time of the salvage operations, which is not necessarily the party that ultimately presented the bill of lading at destination.
6 The theory will also have to explain the position of the ânon-contracting shipperâ, i.e. the party that delivers the goods to the carrier but has not itself made the contract of carriage with the carrier. This is, for instance, the case in an FOB sale, where the buyer must arrange for the carriage of the goods that he bought. The shipper in such case will deliver the goods to the carrier, and may receive the original bills of lading from the carrier, but was not the contract partner of the carrier.10 There are also non-contracting shippers in case of subcarriage, where A enters into a contract of carriage with B, which then, as principal, enters into a second contract of carriage with C. The bill of lading is issued by C pursuant to Câs contract with B, but names A as shipper and the goods are delivered for carriage by A.11 What is then the position of the shipper? Does he have rights against the carrier, and does the carrier have rights against him?12
7 Finally, there are those parties that receive and hold the bill of lading as security (e.g. a bank in the context of a documentary credit). From their own perspective, their position is special: they are not interested in the goods per se, but only as security for a claim, and will therefore only be enforcing rights under the bill of lading if matters have gone âwrongâ, i.e. if their claim has not been paid. Such holders are not concerned with the carriage as such, and would certainly prefer not to acquire any liability towards the carrier.13 The carrier, on the other hand, would be pleased to have an additional debtor under the bill of lading.
8 The issue has been debated since at least the 19th century,14 and over the years, a number of theories have been proposed, challenged and defended. To this date, however, no single theory has gained universal acceptance, certainly not on an international level. Before having a more detailed look at the different theories, however, it is important to revisit the functions of the bill of lading. Each of the different functions may be relevant to third parties, but not to the same extent.
Article 1.(8) of the Rotterdam Rules explicitly confirms this definition.
The shipper in this sense is not necessarily the party that is identified in the box marked âshipperâ on the bill of lading.