The Nordic Environments

Comparing Political, Administrative and Policy Aspects

Marko Joas, Ann-Sofie Hermanson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• eBook ISBN:
  9780429811012
• Subtopic: Politics
• Index: Politics & International Relations

First published in 1999, this volume features 13 contributors with expertise in social science and environmental research who have brought together comparative 12 articles which study the connection between humanity and nature, focusing on comparisons between the Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. They are among the most homogeneous and hence most comparable societies in Europe. The articles reflect the need for environmental and political change recognised by social scientists and political scientists across the Nordic countries, with an emphasis on ecological modernisation. They first consider conceptions of the environment, before comparing both between and within these countries. The traditions and institutions presented in the volume reflect the comprehensiveness of the approaches used within the field in the Nordic countries.

PART I

INTRODUCTION

1 Comparisons and Environments

Ann-Sofie Hermanson and Marko Joas

Within the worldwide community of social science environmental research there are several different approaches to the methodological base as well as the theoretical view of how to study the connection between man and nature, that is, environmental politics, policies and administrations. These different approaches tend to give different meanings to the concept of the environment. This book focuses mainly on one methodological approach: comparative studies. The Nordic countries (in our case the analysis is mainly concentrated on the four mainland countries: Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) are considered to be perhaps the most homogeneous and thus highly comparable societies in Europe. This means that this group of countries has been used in numerous comparative volumes and studies conducted with the most similar system design. There are also institutional factors, as for example several different and independent channels of Nordic research funding, which encourages researchers to create networks within and between these countries. This volume is the result of one such networking experience. The authors in the volume have all either actively participated in Nordic research projects or in activities and workshops within a Nordic context.

Thematically, the articles are results of the environmental change and the need for political change that social scientists and political scientists are experiencing in all the Nordic countries. Ecological modernisation is something towards which all the Nordic societies have been moving, although the pace of this change varies from country to country. The change from traditional nature reserves and end-of-pipe environmental protection, towards sustainable societies, is visible in all these countries and on all levels within these societies. On the international arena the Nordic countries have been forerunners in many ways – for instance in terms of policies concerning air pollution abatement or biological diversity. Naturally, the levels of environmental activity are also high in these countries – the Nordic countries are clearly among the leading nations in implementing Local Agenda 21 projects in the municipalities (see e.g. Lafferty and Eckerberg, 1997).

The Nordic Countries

Despite numerous and deep-rooted similarities, the Nordic societies are also very different in many ways. One such difference, which we inevitably encounter in this book, has been included in the second part of the title, i.e. the different environments. It refers to the varying and rich natural surroundings that both combine and divide the Nordic countries. These environments can be seen in places as different as the south of Scandinavia, the great plains of Denmark, the Swedish wilderness in Northern Lapland, and the Keele mountains and the Norwegian fjords as well as the great forests of Eastern Finland and the beautiful Saimaa Sea archipelago. Thus our conceptions of nature and of environmental problems are also to some extent different, despite the common understanding of Western environmental problems. To illustrate this fact, the book contains articles written by researchers from both East and West, North and South.

Most of the major ecosystems found in Sweden, which in many ways constitutes the heart of Scandinavia, can also be found in the other Nordic countries. In Southern Sweden there are areas which are almost completely cultivated and very similar to the Danish landscape. In the northern and western regions we find mountainous terrain and arctic conditions, which also characterise large parts of Norway and Northern Finland. Most of Sweden and a vast majority of the Finnish land area are covered by natural forests, often placed in the most beautiful landscapes of inland waters. The Baltic Sea, including extensive and rich archipelagoes, is a common denominator especially for Finland and Sweden.

Due to the differences in geographical¹ and natural conditions, the environmental problems that the Nordic countries are facing have slightly different focuses. However, it is clear that all four countries face the same kind of problems which all industrialised countries are experiencing: greenhouse gas emissions, acidification, and eutrophication – mass consumption. But the Nordic countries (perhaps with the exception of Denmark) do not suffer as much as others from a lack of space: Sweden has an area of 449,964 square kilometres, Finland 338,145 sq km, Norway 323,877 sq km, and the smallest one, Denmark covers 43,094 sq km (not including Greenland).

In terms of social construction, the Nordic countries are in most respects very similar. Sweden is the largest country with a population close to 8.85 million. The Danish population is ca 5.28 million and the Finnish population is almost 5.13 million. The Norwegians number 4.39 million. Only Denmark is relatively densely populated, with more than 120 inhabitants per sq km. For the rest of the countries this figure is approximately 20 per sq km. Furthermore, all the Nordic countries are fully democratic societies with a high degree of local autonomy. In addition the welfare structures are by large very similar in these societies; they all provide large public sector services.

This book is, however, not only about the Nordic countries. It is foremost about modem industrialised societies and their connection to the surrounding environment. The Nordic countries highlight this connection. However, in some of the articles other countries are also taken into consideration – as contrasting or contributing examples beside the Nordic cases.

Comparative Studies and the Nordic Countries

Much of our common knowledge is in one way or another based on comparisons. Even outstanding researchers have put forward the question of how we know that a stone is different from a monkey unless we relate these obviously different and ‘incomparable’ objects to each other for a second (Sartori, 1991). There are, however, more or less fruitful comparisons. The scientific comparison must concentrate on a certain aspect of the objects studied. We may concentrate on finding a difference among an apparently coherent population or, the other way around, finding similarities in a population of diverse objects.

By being aware of similarities and differences, we will be in a better position to understand the true nature of a phenomenon. This is why the purpose of the comparative method is sometimes thought to be of an understanding and explaining character. Hence, we gain a lot of information about a political system if we compare it to other political systems, recognising similarities and differences, and examine the origins of a specific similarity or difference. At the same time we improve the validity of our assumptions by comparing several cases and testing the variables in different settings.

The number of objects to be compared depends on several factors. A single case study can be extended to cover more cases and the logic of comparative studies will add to the understanding of the first case. The comparison can also be of an initiating character. Other methods and approaches can fill in the gaps when certain features of similarities and/or differences are found.

The comparative approach is frequently used by Nordic scholars and researchers in Nordic cases. The Nordic countries are felt to be similar enough for studies within a similar systems design. Although this strategy is not outspoken it provides a ground for discovering and paying attention to differences that are not obvious at first glance, but become evident when studying these countries in more detail. The comparisons are also conducted on sub-national levels, as for example sectoral comparisons. Here we find a variety of studies concentrating on cases within one country. Furthermore, not only structural or organisational divisions provide a starting point for this method. Many comparisons identify the function, purpose or other determinants of political action as their point of departure.

In the debate on how to improve the reliability of research results, the question has been raised whether the Nordic countries are an entity suited for comparative studies. Hereby, comparative studies as such have been emphasised to point out and denounce ethnocentrism, and consequently, this approach contributes to a decrease of the influence of ethnocentrism. This would not be the case in a Nordic setting. The Nordic countries are too close to each other, both in a geographical and a political sense (Anckar, 1993).

Nevertheless, a lot of research stressing the uniformity or diversity of the Nordic entity has been carried out, all depending on the level of generalisation. This book is kept together around this comparative approach. Hence, it is also a demonstration of how social sciences conduct environmental studies and what we can learn from this approach. Social science research on environmental issues is today an established branch at many Nordic universities. There are, of course, different approaches to the methodological base as well as to the theoretical view of how we should study environmental politics, policies and administrations. Still, comparative studies offer a common link within the research community.

The Nordic countries have, by international standards, kept a high profile in environmental affairs. This is indicated for instance by early administrative and legislative efforts. We find references to the achievements of the Nordic countries in environmental reports, identifying the state of the environment, the building of environmental capacity, and the conditions for environmental policy success (Andersen and Liefferink, 1997; Jänicke, 1992; Janicke and Weidner, 1997; Jahn, 1998). Thus the question of whether a Nordic environmental policy model is to be found is addressed (Christiansen and Lundqvist, 1996). Environmental values, ranking high in the Nordic societies, have also been in focus. Green attitudes and ideas have been documented in surveys, drawing attention to the popular base of environmental concern.

In other words, the analyses of the environmental efforts by the Nordic countries have touched upon both qualitative and quantitative aspects of environmental policy. Usually the significance of the political situation, i.e. a country’s political disposition towards environmental affairs, has been acknowledged, and the role of political parties, organisations, green representatives, etc. has also been in focus. The administrative structure, i.e. a country’s capacity to cope with environmental demands, is another important thing to investigate, since the mode of organisation opens up different possibilities and sets of instruments. Furthermore, there are comparative policy studies examining the output and outcome of policy processes. It would, of course, be of great interest to evaluate the impact of all these background variables on the environmental policies practised in order to learn from successes and failures. The concept of ecological modernisation offers a new evaluative approach to the study of environmental policies (Weale, 1992).

The Contents of the Volume

A comparative approach still highlights the factors influencing the comprehensive efforts in the field of environmental policy. Based on this logic, this book exemplifies the common properties mentioned above. It does not claim to give an ultimate picture of the Nordic countries, the state of their environment, nor of the efficiency of their environmental policies. It is rather a presentation of established research traditions at the Nordic universities, providing broad and valuable knowledge about environmental policies and policy making. The book is structured into comparisons between countries and comparisons between sectors within a country.

Following the introductory part of the book, the second part discusses the conceptual differences of comparative environmental studies: the various meanings of different environments. In the first chapter Mikael Skou Andersen (Ecological Modernisation Capacity: Finding Patterns in the Mosaic of Case Studies) highlights the ecological modernisation approach as one of the few theoretical approaches useful in comparative environmental policy studies. The ecological modernisation approach, as used for example in Martin Jänicke’s work, presents a comprehensive framework for the analysis of environmental policy. It offers a set of principal assertions with regard to the conditions for successful ecological modernisation, and it acknowledges that the links from causes to effects are long and complex in environmental problems, according to Andersen. Defined narrowly, ecological modernisation implies that environmental policy measures need to be source-related and integrated in the production processes. However, in a broad sense, ecological modernisation addresses the need for structural changes in the industrial society. The author discusses the theoretical framework of ecological modernisation and illustrates the discussion with empirical examples.

The second chapter, written by Monica Tennberg, is perhaps the most methodologically deviant case. In Constructing the North in Arctic Environmental Cooperation the author discusses how meanings are attached to the human-environment relationships, especially in an Arctic context. The object of her study is the Arctic environmental cooperation. The main interest for Tennberg lies in the question of how the meaning of ‘the North’ is constructed in international environmental negotiations.

The last chapter in this part is written by Aard Mulders. His article Views of Nature versus Policy Management Approaches in Nordic Environmental Administrations is based on a large inquiry conducted among national and regional-level environmental administrators in all the Nordic countries. The theoretical background of the study is that prevailing attitudes to nature have implications for the output of environmental policies. Mulders concentrates on the institutional views of nature in Western societies. He develops a typology whereby the different views of nature could be conceptualised as either romantic, ecological, functional or technical, and tests this typology on the Nordic empirical material.

The third part of the book deals with comparisons between the different Nordic countries. The first chapter in this part, written by Ann-Sofie Hermanson (Green Movements and Their Political Development in the Nordic Countries), brings into focus the development of Green parties in the Nordic countries. The author refers to the growing environmental consciousness and the general political situation. As the early environmental movements developed into even electorally successful Green political parties both in Finland and in Sweden, the difference between these and the clearly less successful Green parties in Denmark and Norway became obvious. Explanations can often be found in institutional conditions, but in this respect the Nordic countries do not differ from each other in any remarkable way. Finally, the author brings forward the anti-nuclear issue as one of the decisive factors.

The second chapter in this part, by Detlef Jahn (The Social Paradigms of Environmental Performance: The Nordic Countries in an International Perspective), analyses the environmental performance of the Nordic countries. By comparing the environmental performance of the Nordic countries with that of the OECD-countries, Jahn shows that Finland and Norway score no higher than the OECD-average on environmental performance, whereas Sweden and Denmark perform better. However, even Sweden relies on a productionist paradigm in the end. Thus, the author sees no real Nordic contribution to a change in the environmental policy paradigm of the European Union.

The starting point for the next author, Marko Joas, is the difference that Jahn could see between the different Nordic countries in their environmental policy performance. Building Up and Splitting Down: Environmental Policy Organisation in the Nordic Countries analyses the impact of organisational structure in environmental administrations on this performance. His main purpose is to discuss and examine the grand trends of fragmentational development in the Nordic environmental administrations. Trends of cross-sectorisation as well as decentralisation are analysed.

In the final chapter of this comparative part, C...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Contributors
• Preface
• Part I: Introduction
• Part II: Creating Meanings and Conceptions of Environments
• Part III: Comparing Between Nations – Politics, Policies and Administrations
• Part IV: Comparing Within Nations – Politics, Policies and Administrations
• Part V: Conclusion