Malaysia

Tradition, Modernity, And Islam

R. S. Milne

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN:
  9780367155100
• eBook ISBN:
  9780429717727
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• Subtopic: Asian Politics
• Index: Politics & International Relations

Malaysia has many problems in common with other developing countries—including the difficult task of achieving economic progress and modernization while retaining useful traditional values, reducing poverty, and minimizing dependence on the export of a few primary products. It also has a remarkable, if not unique, diversity of cultures. Its ethnic divisions (approximately 47 percent Malay 34 percent Chinese, 9 percent Indian, and 10 percent "other") are deep, reflecting differences in race, language, culture, and religion. At present, the main danger of serious ethnic tension arises from the impact of the Islamic resurgence. The Malays, who are dominant politically, are Muslims, but very few Chinese, the second largest ethnic group, are Muslims. It is especially remarkable, given this ethnic mix, that Malaya (which became Malaysia in 1963) achieved independence peacefully (in 1957), has experienced no military coups or takeovers, and has regularly held elections. This book examines Malaysia's history, population, social structure, politics, and economics as well as its climate, agriculture, and wildlife and seeks to explain why, despite its inherent ethnic tensions, Malaysia has survived and even prospered.

1
Introduction

A few years ago one of the present authors, then in Malaysia, was approached by a visiting New Zealand Member of Parliament. "I have just two important questions for you," he said. "What is really going on in this country, and what are the names of the two main types of dress worn by Chinese women here?" In a way, this book is an answer to these questions. It does indeed attempt to explain "what is going on" in Malaysia. In addition, it tries to convey, through occasional invocations of the picturesque, something of the feel of the country.

Malaysia is a relatively new country, formed in 1963 from the union between the existing state of Malaya and the Borneo territories of Sabah (formerly known as British North Borneo) and Sarawak. All three had been under British colonial rule, Sarawak and Sabah until as late as 1963, although Malaya had already gained its independence, peacefully, in 1957. Singapore was also part of Malaysia from 1963 to 1965, but after mounting tensions it withdrew. Malaya's six-year experience of self-rule, combined with its larger population and greater degree of development, made it the leading partner in Malaysia. It contains the capital, Kuala Lumpur, where the important political and economic decisions are made. Hence, although this book tries to bring out something of the unique flavor of Sarawak and Sabah, inevitably the central focus is on Malaya, now referred to as Peninsular Malaysia.

Politically, Malaysia is remarkable because it is the only Southeast Asian country, apart from Singapore, that has held free elections at approximately regular intervals since its independence. Unlike the armed forces in many neighboring countries, its military is clearly subordinate to the civil power and there has never been any threat of a military coup. It was decided that Malaya, and later Malaysia, should have a form of government resembling that of Britain, with a prime minister and a parliament. There was a problem, however: What was to become of the eleven component states of Malaya—Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Penang, Perak, Perlis, Selangor, and Terengganu? Apart from Penang and Melaka, these states had hereditary rulers (mostly known as sultans), who had been retained (with mostly symbolic powers) when the British took over control. Which of them, all jealous of their rights and prerogatives, was to play the constitutional role corresponding to that of the British monarch? The solution adopted was that the rulers should choose one of their own number, in turn, to serve as king for a period of five years only. The existence of states and rulers also led to the adoption of a federal form of government, but with the states being allocated very limited powers. In 1963, when Malaysia was formed, Sarawak and Sabah were added to the list of states.

Geographically, Malaysia consists of two parts, separated by about 400 miles of open sea. One, Peninsular Malaysia, lies nearly at the tip of the landmass of Southeast Asia, with Thailand to the north and only the small state of Singapore, nearly on the equator, to the south. The other, consisting of Sarawak and Sabah, forms the northern quarter of the large island of Borneo. At one time these areas were referred to as West and East Malaysia, respectively. Malaysia is one of the smaller Southeast Asian states, with a population of about 15 million and an area of some 129,000 square miles, more than twice the size of Florida. Most of the people live in Peninsular Malaysia, although it is the smaller of the two components.

Peninsular Malaysia has an east and a west coastal plain, with a central mountain range rising to more than 7,000 feet in between. Sarawak and Sabah also feature a coastal plain, which is often swampy. The hills and mountains in the interior include Mount Kinabalu, which, at 13,500 feet, is the highest peak in Southeast Asia. The climate in Malaysia is tropical (i.e., humid throughout the year except in a few hilly areas), with temperatures ranging from 75 to 90 degrees. More than two-thirds of the area is covered by tropical rain forest. Rainfall, about 100 inches a year on the average, is at its highest during the two monsoon seasons, which occur at different times throughout the country.

The west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, except for the northern section, is more settled and developed than the east coast, primarily as a result of the exploitation of tin there during the nineteenth century. Much of the interior is jungle. There are several areas of settlement along the coasts of Sarawak and Sabah, but the interior has been less penetrated and less developed than that of Peninsular Malaysia, and agriculture often takes the form of shifting cultivation. Communications by road, rail, sea, and air are generally effective in, and among, the major areas of settlement. In Peninsular Malaysia they were greatly improved about twenty years ago, when the ferries that supplemented road links along the east coast were replaced by bridges. Between the west coast and Penang island a much longer bridge, claimed to be the third longest in the world, was opened in September 1985.

Before independence, Malaysia was dependent mainly on what the land could provide—on crops such as rice, rubber, and palm oil; on timber; and on minerals, principally tin. In the past, the location of crop-growing areas and minerals has been important in determining concentrations of population and sources of livelihood. Rubber, although planted throughout the country, tends to be concentrated in the southwest of Peninsular Malaysia, principally Johor and Negeri Sembilan. Increasingly, it is being replaced by the more profitable palm oil. Rice cultivation is practiced mainly in the four northern states of Peninsular Malaysia, with the aid of extensive (and expensive) irrigation—notably, the Muda scheme in Kedah. But in spite of these efforts, it is hard to make rice growing profitable. Some "dry" rice cultivation is still practiced in the hilly areas of Sarawak and Sabah. Timber reserves are greater in Sarawak and Sabah than in the whole of Peninsular Malaysia, because exploitation without much regard for conservation had begun earlier in the latter. Reserves are still substantial, however, in Pahang and Terengganu.

Among the minerals, tin deposits (now seriously depleted) are concentrated in central and southern Peninsular Malaysia, principally in Perak. Throughout the last decade, offshore oil discoveries have boosted the Malaysian economy Reserves in Terengganu are somewhat larger than those in Sarawak and Sabah but were discovered later; thus, current production comes mostly from these two states. Natural-gas production has also become important in the last few years, the main source being in the Bintulu area (Sarawak). Manufacturing, too, has recently expanded, thus supplementing the other sources of wealth and leading to an increasing concentration of population in areas near the capital, Kuala Lumpur.

Malaysia's per capita gross national product (GNP) is surpassed in Southeast Asia only by the island state of Singapore and the tiny oil-rich state of Brunei. Malaysia is approaching the economic status of Singapore, which is recognized as falling into the category of "newly industrialized nations." Unfortunately this designation does not mean that poverty is rare. Although many necessities, such as clothing and shelter, are more cheaply obtainable here than in North America or Western Europe, and although deaths from hunger are practically unknown, malnutrition does exist and the basic human needs of some people are left unsatisfied. This problem has been a prime concern of the government recently, as discussed in Chapter 6.

Another aspect of government policy is unusual. In 1969, following violent outbreaks in Kuala Lumpur, the government decided that the Malays, along with other indigenous inhabitants (sometimes collectively referred to as bumiputra, or sons of the soil) needed government help to overcome their economic backwardness. Such assistance was a principal objective of the government's "New Economic Policy." To comprehend how this policy came about, one must understand the ethnic composition of the population. The Malays and other indigenous groups, descended from ancestors who settled in the area about 4,000 years ago, make up just over half the population. The ancestors of the remainder, mostly Chinese but also including Indians, arrived later—at most, a few hundred years ago. In the other countries of Southeast Asia, the proportion of such "immigrant races" is much lower, except in Singapore, where the Chinese constitute a majority. Most Chinese and Indian immigration took place under British rule, principally to provide workers for tin mines and rubber estates, whereas the Malays remained almost exclusively peasants. Several features distinguished the Chinese and Indians from Malays: appearance, language, religion (all Malays but few Indians and even fewer Chinese are Muslims), and segregated areas of residence, as well as largely different occupations.

This residential and occupational segregation was quite a workable arrangement under British rule, but after independence it led to difficulties. How could there be national unity in a country with such a diverse population? What would be the effect of breaking down barriers between the ethnic groups, for example through urbanization? Would closer contacts lead to friction, inasmuch as the Chinese might despise the Malays as backward while the Malays would look upon the Chinese as "unclean" because they ate pork, which is forbidden by Islam? Were successive generations of Malays to remain mainly peasants while most traders were Chinese? Above all, who was to hold political power? The Malays, whose rulers had concluded treaties with the British, initially controlled the government after independence; but, if strict democratic rules were to operate, might not their dominance be threatened by higher Chinese and Indian birthrates? These questions will be answered in full later on. The point to remember now is that there were no easy solutions such as "assimilation." The ethnic cleavages were too deep. Even today, when there is rather more contact among the groups than before, and when language barriers are eroding, Islam constitutes a dividing line between Malays (and some other indigenous peoples) and the Chinese and Indian "non-Malays."

At present, the land, its products, and its wild creatures offer much to interest tourists, who now number about 3 million a year. To be sure, spectacular archaeological and architectural attractions are few; in these areas of interest Malaysia cannot compete with Angkor Wat in Kampuchea or Borobudur in Indonesia. On the other hand, some Malaysian scenery is hard to surpass. The adventurous tourist can climb majestic Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, its peak surrounded by the clouds, or visit the "beach of passionate love" in Kelantan. Less strenuous is a stroll around historic George Town, Penang, although at present its appearance is being changed for the worse by "development." Melaka has an even earlier heritage of buildings, or their remains, from Portuguese and Dutch colonial days, as well as an actual settlement of the descendants of the Portuguese.

There are no huge game parks or organized safaris in Malaysia, unlike some parts of Africa. But several hundred tigers (the beast represented on Malaysia's crest) still exist, the numbers in each state constituting a good index of economic and social development. The last noncaptive tiger seen in Kuala Lumpur was swept helplessly through the town in the heavy floods of 1930. Elephants are protected by a conservation program but are chased away from settled areas. Early in 1984 an operation, almost military in its carefully planned logistics, was carried out in an effort to save an elephant herd that had been trapped on an island by the rising waters of a dam. A variety of Malaysian wild ox, the banteng, or seladang, is said to be the largest in the world. The orangutan (literally, "jungle man") originated in Borneo and is still found in Sabah. More accessible to tourists are Malaysia's fruits, including pineapples, mangoes, starfruits, mangosteens, guavas, papayas, and, above all, durians, although only pineapples are produced in any quantity for export. Durians, a decidedly acquired taste for foreigners, who first have to break through the "smell barrier," are madly sought after by Malaysians. In 1983, the state of Perak held a durian festival, and one of its towns even promoted a contest to find the best "durian opener" (although the outcome was inconclusive because the rules were not sufficiently defined).

Perhaps Malaysia deserves the phrase "instant Asia" more than Singapore, which coined the phrase. The Malaysian population includes not only Malays, Chinese, and Indians but also orang asli (aborigines, or "original people") and an extensive range of native ethnic groups in Sarawak and Sabah, So widespread are Malaysia's economic links with Japan that Japanese businessmen also constitute part of the show, to say nothing of the sometimes quaint groups of tourists from all over the world.

The varieties of dress, particularly those for women, are indeed spectacular; they include the tight-waisted Malay sarong kebaya, the Chinese cheongsam (the more glamorous of the two types of Chinese dress), and the Indian sari, as well as the attractive costumes worn in Sarawak and Sabah. The Islamic resurgence, however, has led some Malay women to adopt more sober garb, in the form of head-to-toe garments that reveal only the lower part of the face. Nevertheless, Malaysia's numerous festivals, whatever their effect on productivity, provide occasions for colorful dress—among them, the Prophet Muhammed's birthday, Hari Raya Puasa (the end of the Muslim fasting month), the Chinese New Year, Deepavali (the Hindu festival of lights), and several others.

Malay games and pastimes include silat (the ancient Malay art of self-defense); the skillful maneuvering of carefully crafted, eye-catching kites; top-spinning; and sepak takraw, a game resembling volleyball in which the use of hands or forearms is prohibited. Malay dances, such as joget, have been supplemented by dances from Sarawak and Sabah, such as the unusual Kadazan bird dance. One may also watch the Malay wayang kulit (traditional puppet theater) and the Chinese opera. Chinese funeral processions are rousing—indeed, deafening—affairs, and the weddings of all ethnic groups are colorful.

The foregoing features are attractive elements of Malaysian life, but the country also has its trouble spots. Its economic problems resemble those of other countries that have made considerable economic progress but are faced with rising economic expectations. As described in Chapter 6, these include such matters as (1) how best to concentrate on the most profitable agricultural crops with the use of appropriate technology, but without causing distress to peasants attached to traditional methods; (2) how to determine the most advantageous timing for launching new industrial ventures; (3) how to profit from the experience of more economically advanced countries, especially Japan; and, simultaneously, (4) how to fight poverty.

A controversy that surfaced in 1983-1984, but was at least temporarily resolved at that time, illustrates the tensions between traditional and modern elements in the society. The attempt to insert old-time rulers and the new office of king into a modern constitutional structure (see Chapter 5) led to problems because the rulers were not content to be restricted to a purely symbolic role.

Problems also arose due to Malaysia's unusual ethnic composition—in particular, the fact that the dominant Malays (and Muslims) only slightly outnumber the non-Malays. Unlike other predominantly Muslim countries with small ethnic minorities, the ruling Malays cannot allow the non-Malays to go their own way, nor is it feasible to assimilate them by force. Attainment of a degree of national unity has been complicated by the effects in Malaysia, as elsewhere, of the worldwide resurgence of Islam, which is the official religion of Malaysia, although the constitution guarantees freedom of worship for those who follow other religions. This issue has engaged much of the attention of Malaysia's leaders in the 1980s. On the other hand, the government has successfully tried to reduce the sharp divisions between Peninsular Malaysia and the geographically separated states of Sarawak and Sabah. These attempts were symbolized by the 1983 decision to standardize time zones in the two regions.

How can Islam be reconciled with the modernization process, and how can its values be promoted without alienating the non-Muslims? Even the issue of national security, which Malaysia shares with other countries, has ethnic aspects. Policy toward China cannot ignore the existence of the large population of Chinese descent, nor can dealings with Indonesia overlook the ties of race, religion, and language linking the two countries.

The complex and fascinating interactions of tradition, modernization (including economic development), and ethnicity, currently most prominent in the form of Islam, constitute the principal themes of this book.

2
Early History: Colonial Rule

Southeast Asia was settled over thousands of years' time by waves of migrants who originated in Mongolia and China. (The one exception was the earlier migration of Negritos from Melanesia and Polynesia, whose descendants in Malaysia are called orang asli.) The Proto-Malays, descendants of the Ibans and some of other tribal groups found in Sabah and Sarawak, migrated to the Malaysian region between 2500 and 1500 B.C., making them one of the earliest groups to arrive. They were followed by the ancestors of the present day Malays, the Deutero-Malays (coastal Malays), whose migration pushed the Proto-Malays into the interior and to more remote regions, such as Borneo. The Proto-Malays, who were hunters rather than cultivators, remained seminomadic and tribal, whereas the Deutero-Malays settled in scattered riverine or coastal villages on the peninsula and supported themselves primarily through agriculture and fishing.

The Malayan peninsula comprised mostly tropical jungle and was roughly divided along a north-south axis by low mountain spines. Rivers were navigable only for short distances, thus impeding communication. The peninsula was sparsely populated until the mid-nineteenth century, and there was little contact among Malays except for minor trading among neighboring villages. Because land was plentiful and the people few, little value was attached to controlling territory. Prosperity was greatly dependent upon total numbers, which, paradoxically, both moderated the harshness of chiefly rule and encouraged the institution of slavery.

The Influence of the Great Civilizat...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of Illustrations
• Preface
• Special Terms and Concepts
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Early History: Colonial Rule
• 3 History Since Independence
• 4 The Society: Ethnicity, Class, and Culture
• 5 Political Institutions and Processes
• The Economy
• 7 Foreign Policy and Security
• 8 Conclusions
• Notes
• Bibliography
• List of Acronyms
• Index