Microcomputers and their Applications for Developing Countries

Report of an Ad Hoc Panel on the Use of Microcomputers for Developing Countries

William J. Lawless Jnr

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9780367010805
• eBook ISBN: 9780429721793
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Sociology
• Index: Social Sciences

Microcomputers are an increasingly important tool in all aspects of development as the need to handle and assimilate vast quantities of information becomes ever more critical for both the international development community and the developing countries. In addition, the microcomputer represents the first significant technological advance that a dev

Part I
Microcomputers and Development Needs

1
Microcomputers: Opportunities and Impacts

Information Processing

Information is a resource, and like other resources—oil, ore, crops—its value can be enhanced by processing. Traditionally, this has been performed by the human mind, that most efficient and remarkable data-gathering and processing machine. Over the centuries, a class of workers has arisen to perform the task of transforming information from a disorganized form into a structured, useful form. In the hands of an accountant, for instance, fragments of data might be rendered into organized columns of figures; in the mind of a scientist, the same data might coalesce into a theorem. The information produced by this mental processing can, in turn, become data to be processed by others, or it can be used to enhance the processing of other resources. The theorem, for instance, can be used by an engineer to create new machines or structures; the columns of numbers produced by the accountant can enhance an organization's ability to acquire money.

Unlike other resources that are finite in supply and easily exhausted if used imprudently, the amount of available information tends to increase over time, often at a geometric rate. As the reserves of information grow, so does the need for more efficient means of processing it. The sheer quantity of raw data now available in areas such as agriculture, business, energy resources, and government is well beyond the ability of the human mind to process, at least within a reasonable time.

The computer is a machine for processing such information. It may never attain the complexity and sophistication of the human mind, but by performing the unsophisticated, rote activities of an information processing task, such as manipulating columns of numbers, solving mathematical equations, and rearranging text, the computer frees the information worker to make the complex decisions that no computer is yet capable of.

For certain applications, the computer, until recently, has been affordable only by those with considerable financial resources. In the developed world, for instance, the computer has become an indispensable tool for government and business. The value of a computer to government or business has traditionally been calculated by comparing the value of the data processed by the computer to the value of the cost of processing by an alternative means. Clearly, if the value imparted to the data by manipulation is greater than the cost of operating the computer, then the extra expense is justifiable.

In the last decade, the cost of owning and operating a computer has decreased significantly. The microcomputer, the product of 25 years of progress in integrated circuit technology, has made it possible for small businesses and research establishments to purchase one or more computers with relatively minor financial investment.

Origin of the Microcomputer

The microcomputer was made possible by the invention, in 1971, at the Intel Corporation of California, of a device called the microprocessor. The microprocessor is an integrated circuit that combines all of the information processing machinery of a computer on a single chip of silicon. In one stroke, the microprocessor allowed the creation of computers that were smaller and cheaper than any that had previously been feasible.

Computer use in the developed world has proceeded at a brisk but haphazard pace for more than a third of a century. In the less developed countries, however, the pace has been somewhat more sluggish. The use of larger computers, mainframes, and minicomputers has been restricted generally to larger corporations and governments. Microcomputers, because of their low cost and portability, allow computers to penetrate sectors where computer use has hitherto been unknown. As the cost of the equipment continues to drop (and it is likely to do so for at least the remainder of this decade), rapid dissemination of microcomputers throughout the developing countries can be expected.

The microcomputer can produce many changes in the developing world. Its advent could change the interaction between developing countries and the international assistance organizations and developed country groups with whom they cooperate. In many areas, it will no longer be necessary for a developing country government to hire outside agencies to perform critical financial analyses. It will be able to do the analysis itself with microcomputers.

Some Initial Cautions

Before discussing microcomputers and their applications, it is well to reflect what microcomputers cannot and should not be expected to do:

• Microcomputers are no substitute for good analysis and thoughtful choices. They may help, however, primarily by simplifying the otherwise tedious examination of a whole range of possibilities or by performing rapid computations when necessary.
• Microcomputers are no replacement for well-trained staff with intelligence and analytic skills. Indeed, the most important feature of the microcomputer may be the power it brings to this group of people to assist them in their duties.
• Microcomputers do not bring sector-specific knowledge to a particular problem, whether in energy, agriculture, or health. "Expert systems" purport to do this, but their widespread practical application is still in the future.

Social Questions

Serious questions have been raised about the social implications of introducing microcomputers into developing countries where basic (noncomputerized) communication networks are often weak, large numbers of people may be illiterate, the number of technologically skilled workers is small, unemployment is high, spare parts are often unavailable, electricity is not always reliable or available, foreign exchange may be short, and people often lack more-basic services such as roads, sanitation facilities, and schools. These questions apply to any imported technology and bring up the issue of dependence on industrialized nations and their products.

However, Munasinghe (1984a) points out, "Improving the quality of decision making where management skills are scarce will help to create more jobs at lower levels, rather than making workers redundant. . . . Better application of computers to science and technology will enable the intellectual community to enhance their contribution to national development."

Mainframe computer technology has been in use in many developing countries for years in the operation of airports and banks. Thus many people in the Third World can operate a computer even if they are not skilled in programming. Based on his experience in Egypt, El Kholy confirms that "Many if not most of the developing countries, in which good health and sophisticated technology—aircraft, cars, brain scanners, oil refineries, weather stations, hydroelectric and various industrial plants—exist alongside disease and poverty, have secondary school graduates who can be trained to operate and service a microcomputer" (El Kholy and Mandil, 1983).

In many of these developing countries, mainframe computers at ministries are overburdened. Large amounts of information are collected from field levels, but analysis cannot be scheduled and results are not reported back to the field. The use of microcomputers at intermediate levels, in a district or regional office, for example, helps to solve the problem of processing large amounts of data and the problem of providing timely information. Moreover, by increasing the number of people who use microcomputers, intermediate processing of information helps technology transfer. It trains intermediate-level personnel in planning, logistics, and objective measurement, and allows for a wide diffusion of information among professional personnel.

Once the decision to use a microcomputer has been made, the next step is the choice of software—the programs that it will perform—and hardware—the equipment. It is important to select a system that has software available to carry out the needed tasks; can be operated by the available staff; is capable of performing whatever calculations or functions are required; can run on the local power supply; can operate in local weather conditions (heat, humidity, dust, for example); and has replacement parts and servicing readily available. Further discussion of generic hardware and software is provided in the appendix.

Potential Problems

In this section, several practical difficulties that are likely to arise and possible solutions to those problems, or ways in which they can be avoided altogether, are discussed. Chapter 7 includes some of the broader issues that may arise from the introduction of this technology in the Third World and addresses policy questions that should be considered before a framework can be established for computer use in developing countries.

Availability

In most developed countries, purchasing a microcomputer has become relatively simple. In theory, one need only walk into a computer dealership, consult a salesman, and purchase the appropriate system. In practice it is rarely this easy. Nevertheless, computer buyers in North America and Europe take for granted that they will have a wide variety of equipment from which to choose and that they will be able to assemble a system from that equipment without exceptional difficulty or inconvenience.

In developing countries, however, this is not the case. Although certain manufacturers, notably Apple, IBM, and Radio Shack, try to maintain an international presence, established dealerships are rare outside of national capitals; the choice of brands is often limited; and delivery can be time consuming and unreliable, especially when demand for a particular computer exceeds the ability of the dealer or the manufacturer to supply the equipment. Shortages in Third World countries are common. If local purchase is not an option and equipment must be shipped from overseas, customs restrictions and import duties may apply, adding considerably to the overall cost of a system. Some countries limit importation of foreign microcomputers to protect an indigenous computer industry. This ban forces buyers either to purchase locally manufactured equipment, that may not be as up-to-date as that available in other countries, or to seek out black market dealers. Some governments, therefore, are permitting local manufacturers to import systems with the understanding that they will gradually increase the proportion of components manufactured locally.

Service

Most countries do not have an indigenous computer industry; nonetheless, it is desirable to purchase a microcomputer system locally, when possible, if only to guarantee that service will be available when needed. This means, unfortunately, that equipment will often be selected not because it is the best on the market or the most appropriate for the task at hand, but because it is available and can be easily serviced.

Since many of the components in a computer system are delicate, particularly when exposed to environmental extremes, repairs are inevitable. If service is not available locally, equipment may need to be shipped overseas for repairs. Serious consideration must be given to the purchase of a back-up system for use when the primary system is not available. This secondary system should be as close to identical to the primary system as possible, so that it will function with all peripherals and software.

Appropriate Software

Perhaps the most frustrating problem associated with acquiring microcomputers is software compatibility. Microcomputers all require a master control program—the operating system— usually written in "machine" mathematical language and unique for each type of microprocessor. Only recently some operational systems (CP/M, MS DOS, UNIX) have evolved into de facto standards by being used by the most popular microcomputers.

Furthermore, program development tools such as compilers allow programs written in the popular high-level languages to be used with these available operating systems, so it would appear that there should be no serious compatibility problems. However, commercially offered programs are provided to the user in the machine language format and are therefore not usable on other microprocessors. It also turns out that there are always slight differences in the higher level language used in conjunction with one operating system as opposed to another.

Because the ability to run the desired software is key in the choice of hardware, the dealer who supplies a computer system should also supply software. That software, however, may not always be readily available. Generic software packages, such as word processing, spreadsheets, and database management systems, should be reasonably easy to find, but more esoteric packages, intended for specialized applications, will be more difficult to obtain. To some extent, this is a problem in both developed and developing countries, though it has been lessened in recent years by the increase in numbers of commercial software outlets and mail-order suppliers. Some mail-order software houses in the United States and Europe will send programs to Third World nations, but there is always a risk that programs will be damaged in transit, because of rough handling or exposure to x-rays.

A more serious problem is that suitable software for many Third World applications may not exist. Further, because most of the software industry is concentrated in a few countries, most notably the United States, the bulk of software packages is in English. French and Spanish translations exist for the more popular program manuals, but other language versions are rare. Local development of software could remedy this lack if suitable packages cannot otherwise be obtained. However, software development is not a trivial undertaking. Sophisticated packages produced by major software publishers are in many instances the result of enormous effort. Whereas less ambitious programs intended to solve specific problems present a less formidable task, the services of a trained programmer are required for all but the most trivial of applications. Translating of existing software into suitable form is easier than creating new packages from scratch but should only be attempted if the source code (that is, the original program in the form written by the programmer) is available. Unfortunately, most software publishers are reluctant to supply source code.

Scarcity of Information

In choosing a microcomputer system, it is important to have up-to-date information about available equipment and software and their operation. In much of the world, this is not a problem. Publication of information about microcomputers has become almost as vital an industry as the production of the computers themselves. Computer users in the developed world take this information resource for granted. In addition, they have access to dozens of microcomputer-oriented magazines, some of them writing about microcomputer systems in general and others specializing in specific brands of machines, such as IBM, Apple, Commodore, and Radio Shack. In some Third World countries, these books and magazines are either unavailable or rare and costly. Further, most are available only in English, French, and Spanish. An alternative in many countries is locally published microcomputer magazines to provide information at low cost in the local language to local purchasers.

Another possible source of inexpensive information is the computer users' group. These groups are informal networks of computer users, often linked by a common interest in a particular brand of equipment or a common end use. Members of these groups are usually willing to share their knowledge about computers and may even offer assistance in the implementation and maintenance of a system. Their newsletters disseminate their knowledge to a wider audience. Contact with users' groups can often be made through local computer dealers or universities.

Training

Despite the emphasis placed by manufacturers on so-called user-friendly systems, hardware/software packages aimed at the nonspecialist user and designed for ease of use, it remains difficult at best to use a microcomputer effectively without some form of training. Often, it may be somewhat challenging to learn a microcomputer application from the manual. However, ideally, the dealer who supplies the computer system will also provide inexpensive training at his facility. If a computer system is installed in a developing country by the local government or an international agency, the project should also allocate funds to train users.

Environmental Problems

Computer equipment is sensitive to environmental extremes, and maintaining conditions conducive to its use can add significantly to the cost of the system. Although microcomputers are less delicate than many larger computers, they are nonetheless subject to overheating and moisture damage. In a country where high humidity and extreme temperatures are common, an effort should be made to minimize the effect of these conditions. Air conditioning may be necessary in some circumstances. The ruggedness of a particular system may even become a primary consideration when making a purchase. Transportable comput...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• TABLES AND FIGURES
• PREFACE
• PART I MICROCOMPUTERS AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
• 1 MICROCOMPUTERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND IMPACTS
• 2 GENERIC APPLICATIONS: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT
• PART II EXAMPLES OF SECTORAL APPLICATIONS
• 3 APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
• 4 APPLICATIONS IN HEALTH
• 5 APPLICATIONS IN ENERGY
• 6 APPLICATIONS IN MUNICIPAL MANAGEMENT
• PART III MAJOR POLICY ISSUES AND THE FUTURE
• 7 MICROCOMPUTER POLICY DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF SRI LANKA
• 8 THE FUTURE
• APPENDIX: Microcomputer Hardware and Software
• GLOSSARY
• REFERENCES
• INDEX