Chapter 1
Understanding inclusion
Interpretations, perspectives and cultures
Richard Rose (University of Northampton, UK)
Understanding demands effort. Even in an age of increased mass communication when it is relatively simple to share ideas and perspectives it is not always easy to interpret the meaning of the messages we receive. Indeed, although we live in the ‘information age’, there is probably a greater risk of misinterpretation of the world and its phenomena than at any time in our history. It is tempting to believe that our own perceptions are a fair reflection of the society in which we live, whereas in reality we are limited by our experiences and the narrow confines of our daily lives. In order to ensure that we have an opportunity to understand the world around us we must develop and accrue knowledge on the basis of listening to those whose experiences and lives may differ considerably from our own and respecting their interpretations of the society which we share. Martha Nussbaum has stated the situation and the challenges which face those of us who are attempting to understand changes in the world concisely:
This profound statement from Nussbaum provides a pertinent summation of many of the issues which have characterised the debates around inclusive schooling. The struggles of society to come to terms with diversity have often led to the imposition of negative labels and stereotypical interpretations of that which we cannot easily understand. It is far easier to judge others by measuring them against our own egocentric self-image than it is to accept that those whom we perceive as different from ourselves are of equal worth. The call for patience and understanding which Nussbaum articulates has not always been in evidence, even within our education systems. All too often in the past our schools have been institutions lacking in the necessary tolerance to recognise, appreciate and address the needs of children who are considered ‘different’ and are said to challenge existing systems. If this is true of schools, where we would expect tolerance and understanding to be the norm, how much more likely is it that difficulties will be encountered in other aspects of life where respect for individuality receives less attention.
The late twentieth century was a period during which many educators began to confront the issues of inequality and injustice which blight the lives of so many children. A global recognition of the causes of exclusion of children from even the most fundamental aspects of education encouraged increasing numbers of teachers, researchers and writers to challenge the status quo and seek for the means of change which would improve the lives of whole communities. However, as the momentum towards greater inclusion in education and in other aspects of community life has increased, so has our appreciation of the many obstacles which stand in the way of change. Bringing about changes to our education systems continues as a fundamental issue which is central to the development of a more equitable society, but even if it were to be attained this change in isolation is unlikely to yield the results which people who have for so long been marginalised demand. Inclusion requires a holistic and coordinated approach to address the socio-economic, cultural and political barriers which maintain a significant proportion of the world’s population in poverty and continue to widen the gap between marginalised individuals and those in positions of authority and power.
Although education alone cannot hope to bring about the necessary change in the lives of disempowered individuals, those within our education systems have a critical role to play. The attention given to issues of social and educational injustice by educators in recent years has certainly maintained a focus upon issues which might otherwise be largely ignored. The challenge now is to ensure that education policy makers, teachers and researchers focus their work and combine their efforts with parents, children and communities whose previous experiences have been those of disenfranchisement and exclusion. Teachers should be natural leaders within their communities, but this demands that their influence be used beyond the classroom in order to ensure that the critical debates around education continue to receive the attention of those in positions to effect change in the lives of disempowered people.
It is appropriate that education, seen as a priority in most countries, should be at the centre of debate and the subject of an extensive body of research. However, whereas most countries have identified national priorities which have become a focus for ongoing discussion, inclusion can be seen to have become an international concern and a catalyst for a long-running discourse both within and across nations. Over the past three decades researchers, policy makers and organisations representing people who previously struggled to find a voice or a place within education systems have taken centre stage in an effort to define and develop fair and sustainable schooling for all learners. In particular, efforts have been made to ensure that the needs of those individuals who have previously been denied opportunities for schooling have been at the forefront of educational initiatives. The call for change has been loud and in many instances well coordinated, yet the endeavours of so many individuals and groups continue to be necessary as progress remains slow and in many societies children continue to fall outside the mainstream of education.
The fact that inclusion has been the centre of attention for such a prolonged period may well be an indication of the complexities and confusions surrounding this topic. A gradual appreciation of the necessity to change schools and education systems, rather than focusing upon perceived deficits in individual children, has led to a reappraisal of previously established special education pathways. Medical models have given way to social interpretations of the needs of individuals and the communities in which they live and have encouraged researchers to take a broader perspective of the causes of marginalisation and the ways in which these may be addressed. Although an increased understanding of the needs of individual pupils and the characteristics associated with some forms of disability can be helpful, where this has led to stereotyping and a lowering of expectations such an approach has done a considerable disservice to the very individuals that our education system has identified as being in need of support. It is now apparent that simplistic solutions imposed upon schools have often been found wanting and in many cases have led to the kind of compromise which leaves individuals frustrated and angry.
As the debates surrounding schooling have intensified it has become increasingly clear that interpretations of inclusion require an understanding of the established cultures and traditions upon which societies have been founded. The imposition of western models of schooling upon countries that have a long and proud history of education simply serves to perpetuate a cultural imperialism that throughout the late twentieth and early twenty-first century has been shown to fail. If inclusive schooling is to be achieved it will be built upon an appreciation and respect for the established social and cultural values of unique societies rather than on introduced systems which have their origins in countries with significantly different values and ideals. In an age which has seen increased international collaboration between educational researchers a first principle must be to recognise that in relation to inclusive education there may be many different perspectives of a shared issue of concern.
The scrutiny to which moves towards providing a more equitable education system have been subjected in recent years has to an extent been the result of a mobilisation of individuals and organisations who have been marginalised within society throughout history. If advances are to be made in confronting those iniquities which continue to pervade schooling it is essential that we not only listen to the voices of these individuals and groups, but engage with them as equal partners to become agents for change. Societies having chosen to identify individuals according to their abilities, income, ethnicity, sexuality or gender have been forced to reappraise the ways in which they interpret the needs of individuals and to come to terms with an international movement which seeks justice for those who have been forced to the margins. whereas in the past individuals and groups have found difficulties in establishing a voice that could be heard beyond their immediate vicinity, in an era of global communication it has become easier to mobilise ideas and actions in order to ensure that the injustice of exclusion is at the forefront of the minds of politicians and policy makers. In coordinating action for social justice it will be necessary to deploy the skills and expertise of many players. Policy makers, politicians, teachers and researchers all have important roles to play. However, all of these need constantly to attend to their own personal motivations for involvement and in so doing to ensure that their commitment to marginalised individuals takes full account of the opinions and expertise of the very people they claim to support. The principles of ‘nothing about us without us’ (Shevlin and Rose 2003; Johnson 2009) have become enshrined in disability politics and needs to inform the actions of all who work towards a more inclusive society. whereas in the past researchers have at times made efforts to consult with people who have been denied their rights of access to education and other services, we must now move beyond this to ensure that partnerships are established based upon inclusive principles which may serve as a model for other service providers. Observations made by researchers need to be tempered with a recognition that the majority of those undertaking such investigations are from social and economic backgrounds which differ greatly from those of marginalised people. Judgements made by researchers and activists need to be made on the basis of an understanding that their personal beliefs and lifestyles may be at variance with those whom they intend to support or represent through their work.
Bourdieu (1977) in establishing his theory of practice and symbolic power suggested that individuals become either dominant or subservient within society according to the distribution of resources. In identifying four forms of capital – economic, cultural, social and symbolic – he demonstrated how each of these impacts upon both the image of individuals held by those in positions of dominance and the self-perception of those in positions of weakness. In order to address situations of marginalisation Bourdieu saw the necessity to empower those individuals whose capital is currently low. The links between poverty and exclusion are well established (Penn 2005; Gray 2007; Terzi 2008) and it is clear that inclusion, if it is to be achieved, will be dependent upon significant changes to the current socio-economic and political structures which maintain large numbers of individuals at a distance from the mainstream of society. The necessity for such wholesale changes to the very fabric of the systems which we have created within our societies is most certainly a reason why progress towards inclusion has often been slow and in some instances faltering. In times of upheaval including natural disaster, economic recession or international conflict it is the most vulnerable who suffer. They do so not only because of the events that immediately surround them but also because such events lead to a shift in national priorities and a redistribution of resources away from those in greatest need. A holistic approach to tackling issues of social injustice and to formulating new structures which ensure inclusive practices not only in schools but within communities will demand a broader focus from researchers and activists than has often been in evidence to date.
This book brings together writers who have made a commitment to investigate inclusive education and its many dimensions. They do so from a range of perspectives, each bringing to their writing a breadth of experience from their own country and often from their work internationally. Each writer provides an independent interpretation of inclusion and its many dimensions. whereas some are concerned with deepening our philosophical understanding of the influences upon inclusive schooling, others are more concerned to explore those responses from schools or within communities to a challenging and at times contended movement. Each of these authors has, over several years, demonstrated an ongoing commitment to enquiry from a broad range of experiences as teachers, researchers, parents and advocates. The varying dimensions of the debate around inclusion are articulated by individuals who bring insights to an issue which continues to challenge our understanding of how schools can become more equitable and supportive from the point of view of all learners. The writers represented in this book do not speak with one voice. Each has made a commitment to explore those everyday impediments which restrict access to schooling for a significant number of learners. The fact that they address this challenge from different perspectives is a strength rather than a weakness in terms of our understanding of inclusion.
Discourses of inclusion are set to continue. This is inevitable so long as exclusion from an education that is appropriate and fair persists for so many individuals. By sharing our understanding and experiences, but most importantly by listening to individuals whose experiences differ from our own, we may improve our appreciation of how educational systems can be developed for the benefit of all. Only when this level of appreciation has been achieved will we be in a position strong enough to confront the injustices which continue to be a feature of the lives of so many people.
Bibliography
Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, H. (2007) Diversity, inclusion and education: the educational needs of children from severely disadvantaged socio-cultural groups in Europe. In G. K. Verma, C. R. Bagley and M. M. Jha (Eds) International Perspectives on Educational Diversity and Inclusion. London: Routledge.
Johnson, K. (2009) No longer researching about us without us: a researcher’s reflection on rights and inclusive education in Ireland. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37 (4): 250–256
Nussbaum, M. (1997) Cultivating Humanity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Penn, H. (2005) Unequal Childhoods. London: Routledge.
Shevlin, M. and Rose, R. (2003) Encouraging Voices: Respecting the Insights of Young People who have been Marginalised. Dublin: National Disability Authority.
Terzi, L. (2008) Justice and Equality in Education. London: Continuum.
