Chapter 1
An introduction to diversity
Andrew W. Gale and Marilyn J. Davidson
Introduction
Managing diversity initiatives seek to fully develop the potential of each employee and turn the different sets of skills that each employee brings into a business advantage. Through the fostering of difference, team creativity, innovation and problem-solving can be enhanced (Davidson and Fielden, 2003). The focus is therefore much more on the individual rather than the group or team. Having a diverse workforce not only enables organizations to understand and meet customer demands better, but also helps attract investors and clients as well as reduce the costs associated with discrimination.
The literature shows that there is research evidence for the proposition of âvalue in diversityâ (e.g. Bank, 1999; Polzer et al., 2002). Nevertheless, this is criticized by some authors (e.g. Jehn, 1997) who argue that diversity has a negative effect on group process and performance. However, it is powerfully argued by OâReilly et al. (1997) that diversity may be managed to avoid negative consequences (e.g. Priem et al., 1995; Wittenbaum and Strasser, 1996). According to Polzer et al. (2002) well managed heterogeneous groups are far more creative than homogeneous ones. Early interpersonal congruence of groups has been found to have a significant long-lasting influence on creative task performance beyond simply nullifying the detrimental effects of diversity on social integration, group identification and emotional conflict (Jehn et al., 1999; Polzer et al., 2002). According to Davidson and Fielden:
Managing diversity initiatives seek to fully develop the potential of each employee and turn the different sets of skills that each employee brings into a business advantage. Through the fostering of difference, team creativity, innovation and problem-solving can often be enhanced. The focus is, therefore, much more on the individual rather than the group. Having a diverse workforce not only enables organizations to understand and meet customer demand better, but also helps attract investors and clients, as well as reduce the costs associated with discrimination.
(2003, p. xxii)
Historically, when organizations refer to diversity policy they are often referring to forms of practices and procedures that were previously labelled âequal opportunitiesâ (EO), and tended to be particularly aimed at gender and race. Furthermore, the failure of EO legislation and policies in aiming to reduce discrimination in organizations, was its emphasis on specific groups (e.g. women) having to assimilate once in the organization, rather than a change in organizational culture to one of inclusive diversity (Davidson and Burke, 2000). In addition, the singling out of certain groups for special consideration (e.g. positive action programmes, affirmative action legislation) sometimes led to degrees of resistance or backlash (Davidson and Fielden, 2003; Burke, 2005). The differences between EO policies (EOPs) and diversity policy, was aptly described by Kirton:
The general thrust of EOPs has been for organizations to develop procedures and practices to eliminate discriminatory behaviour by line managers and other gatekeepers and in so doing reduce the disadvantage experienced by individual members of the groups covered by the policy. One of the criticisms of this approach has been that it is negative, in the sense that failure to comply is associated with penalties (imposed by legislation) and positive actions (for example, the disciplinary of anyone found contravening policy). In other words, the positive benefits of compliance and commitment to the ideals or goals of the policy are not effectively sold to organizational members. In contrast, diversity policy seeks not only to recognize workforce diversity, but to value it rather than see it as a problem requiring a remedy.
(2003, p. 4)
The concept of diversity in the context of the construction industry workforce is emerging as an important aspect of human resources management on site and in contractorsâ, architectsâ, consultantsâ and clientsâ organizations at all levels (Sweet, 2005) This is largely due to the rapidly changing aspirations of those employed in the construction industry, legislation and trends in society. Action research (funded by the UK government) undertaken by the authors (see Appendices) was designed to meet the increasing interest and concern of industrial organizations and society with respect to the under-representation of women, black and minority ethnic groups in the construction sector. In the United Kingdom, the construction industry is a significant employer. It employs 1.4 million people and is responsible for 10 per cent of UK GNP but women only constitute 9.2 per cent (DTI 2003) of that, with only 1 per cent (CITB 2003) of these in manual trades. Women make up only 4 per cent of the membership of the construction professions (Davey et al., 1998) and black and minority ethnic workers are underrepresented in the construction industry and so are people with disabilities. The construction workforce has only 1.9 per cent black and Asian workers compared with 6.4 per cent for the working population as a whole â more than 70 per cent fewer black and Asian workers than the UK industry mean. (Somerville et al., 2002). Hence, despite more than three decades of EO legislation, one of the largest industrial sectors in the United Kingdom has managed to perpetrate the status quo as a predominate white, male culture.
The construction industry is very visible. The general population observes construction at work on a daily basis by simply seeing its production sites from the street. Construction has a very strong image and there are many stereotypes associated with the industry. All of these factors make construction a very public feature of every day life. As a major employer in an increasingly competitive global economy, employment in the construction industry is likely to become more and more scrutinized in the future. It is therefore very important that those involved in the construction industry are aware of the concept of diversity and the issues surrounding diversity.
Aims of this book
This book aims to cover topics associated with the implementation of equality and diversity in relation to gender, black and minority ethnic groups and disability. Diversity encompasses a wider range of factors such as sexual orientation, age, appearance, personality, social class and so forth. However, to date, research into issues of diversity and equality in the construction sector have tended to be focused specifically on gender discrimination and more recently race discrimination and disability.
The book draws on research findings, good practice guidelines (Appendices I and II) and case studies from several different countries and regions, and is written for practitioners in construction as well as students of construction. It should also be of value to those engaged in recruiting, training, supervising and managing operative labour, technical and professional staff.
The book has been structured in such a way as to facilitate ease of access to the material it contains. It is in four parts:
- Diversity and the Law
- Gender and Equality
- Race, Disability and Equality
- Managing and Implementing Diversity.
Each chapter has been written by specialists in their fields and at the end of each chapter there are discussion questions. Also, the reader will find examples and small case studies illustrating issues and points raised in the chapters.
Overview
This book brings together current debates, findings and case-study practices around the issues associated with diversity management in the construction industry. In Chapters 2 and 3 in Part I, âDiversity and the lawâ, Anne Ruff and Malcolm Sargeant highlight how government policy and legislation continue to evolve with influences far wider than the UK context. In particular, the European Union has an increasingly significant impact on UK legislation. For example, legislation on racial discrimination came into being in 1965 and was strengthened in 2003 due to a EU Directive in 2000. However, whilst British legislation requires public bodies to monitor EO policies and implementation, the private sector is still able to avoid this at the present time.
EU legislation and Directives also seek to prevent discrimination on the grounds of belief, religion and sexual orientation. Sex equality has been the subject of UK legislation since 1975 and much more recent legislation designed to reduce discrimination on grounds of disability has been enacted. This legislation requires both public and private sector organizations to be proactive in their behaviours to reduce disability discrimination. Undoubtedly, the impact of UK and European legislation and directives will become increasingly significant to construction employers with respect to recruitment practices and management practices in general.
According to Anne Ruff (Chapter 2), organizations in the construction industry that fail to follow discrimination legislation are more likely to risk being taken to employment tribunals. Furthermore, a failure to adhere to the changes introduced by the Race Relations (amendment) Act 2000, may result in a decreased likelihood of procuring contracts from public bodies. Interestingly, she isolates the specific issues which may well dominate the construction industry in the near future as including the âcanteenâ and ârugby club macho cultureâ, bullying and harassment at work, recruitment practices and the obligation not to discriminate on grounds of disability.
In Chapter 3, Malcolm Sergeant concludes that the diverse workforce found in the construction sector requires a variety of contractual relationships away from the traditional model of full-time employer/employee. Both the EU and the UK Government have accepted that flexible working arrangements should be encouraged. Moreover, he believes this could be helped by extending the employment protection to cover both full-time and flexible workers, as well as the need for construction industry employers to realize the importance of equality and diversity.
In Part II of the book, entitled âGender and equalityâ, the emphasis shifts to specifically examining gender equality issues in the construction industry with a particular focus on women. Clara Greed, in Chapter 4 provides a detailed discussion on the continued social exclusion of women in the construction industry, despite more than 15 years of initiatives aimed at attracting more women into the industry. She presents recent statistics on the percentage of women in construction, and illustrates the lack of women at senior levels and the continued discriminatory and macho culture of the construction industry as a whole. The concept and politics of social exclusion are emphasized as an important issue with many interrelated aspects and influences. While acknowledging that the industry is undoubtedly trying to improve itself, the problems and ineffectiveness of a large number of initiatives associated with trying to tackle social exclusion are acknowledged and discussed.
In Chapter 5, drawing on their own research findings, Andrew Dainty and Barbara Bagilhole examine the factors that influence the career dynamics of British female and male construction professionals. Following the continual theme of social exclusion, they present evidence confirming the discrimination and prejudice inherent in work practices and from male managers in particular, who act as âgatekeepersâ hampering womenâs career progression. Indeed they assert that the construction industry, championed by senior leaders, has a moral duty to modify its employment practices and culture if it wants to continue marketing itself as an appropriate employer for women.
The following three chapters focus on women in specific occupations within construction. Suzanne Wilkinson (Chapter 6) describes the under-representation and experiences of women in civil engineering from the time they enter higher education through to the challenges they encounter once they enter the industry. In Western countries, women still constitute only 10â20 per cent of all students studying civil engineering courses and often encounter negative attitudes of male students and staff, feelings of isolation and eroded confidence. Furthermore, not only do the female graduates have to make more job applications compared to their male counterparts, but around 15 per cent (Issacs, 2001) of them choose other employment (Wilkinson, 1996). Wilkinson also refers to important research by such authors as Bennett et al. (1999) who have reported that while there have been few significant differences between female and male construction students on employment choice, differences raised more by women include commitment to EO, raising profiles of successful women and flexible working/ childcare/career breaks. Moreover, the lack of flexibility related to contracting is also highlighted as a significant âturn-offâ for female civil engineers.
Pay inequalities, âdinosaurâ attitudes of men against women in the construction industry and the predominant white, male, âmachoâ cultures are further endorsed by Clara Greed in Chapter 7 in her review of the barriers facing women in Surveying and Planning. While there has been a growth in the numbers of women entering planning and surveying, they are still in a minority. Furthermore, with 70 per cent of planners found in the public sector (RICS, 2003), she points out how this results in a disproportionate âmaleâ influence on the design and nature of the built environment within every local authority in the country (Greed, 1999). As a consequence, the lack of a diverse culture in the occupation of planning results in evidence suggesting that women suffer disadvantage within a built environment that is developed by men, primarily for other men (e.g. Darke et al., 2000; Little, 2002). Drawing on recent developments in both the European Union and United Kingdom, this chapter presents strategies for generating change to improve the situation for women in the form of a âtoolkitâ aimed at mainstreaming gender issues into planning and practice (Reeves and Greed, 2003).
In Chapter 8 Linda Clarke, Elisabeth Michielsens and Christine Wall examine the reasons for the massive degree of âsex-typedâ gender segregation of women in manual trades. In the UK construction industry women constitute less than 1 per cent of the manual workforce â a proportion that has decreased further in the past decade (CITB, 2003). Based on the results of their empirical studies on experiences of tradeswomen in UK local authority repair and maintenance departments, they present cases of good practice as well as personal case studies of individual interviewees. In common with the majority of contributors in this book, they conclude that to change the position of women in manual trades requires policy regulation â without it, the male-segregated nature of construction will continue to be reinforced. Womenâs entry into manual trades was largely due to the goodwill of individual employers, good training schemes, good employment conditions and effective EO policies in terms of recruitment and employment, as well as support mechanisms. Indeed, they proposed that in such strongly sex-typed occupations as manual trades, proactive recruitment and special support to ensure retention rules were vital to provide the additional leverage to integrate women.
The final chapter in Part II, further develops the argument for the provision of a work environment that would be more supportive of employees in terms of improving the workâlife balance. In line with numerous authors throughout this book, Helen Lingard and Valerie Francis suggest that the inflexible employment arrangements adopted by construction organizations...
