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Music, its significance and functions
What is music? What we define as music is culturally and individually determined. Of course, sound exists as an objective reality but for that sound to be considered as music we need to recognise it as such. What is acknowledged as âmusicâ varies between cultures, sub-cultures and individuals. The music of one culture or sub-culture may not be recognised as music by members of others. A relatively culturally neutral definition of music is âthe art or science of arranging sounds in notes and rhythms to give a desired pattern or effectâ.1 In Western cultures, historically greater account was taken of the aesthetic qualities of music. One definition described it as âthe art of combining sounds of voice(s) or instrument(s) to achieve beauty of form and expression of emotionâ.2 Of course, defining music in these terms depends on personal judgements of what constitutes beauty of form and expression of emotion. This varies. Indeed, what constitutes âmusicâ for some would not be described by others as either beautiful or expressive of emotion. Within this frame of reference, you may wish to consider which genres or styles you would describe as music.
In non-Western cultures, music can have very different meanings. In some, the concept of music is integrated with dance, for instance, the Igbo of Nigeria have no specific term for music; the term nkwa denotes âsinging, playing instruments and dancingâ.3 In some cultures, music making is a collective activity where everybody actively participates. This contrasts with Western classical music where there are clearly defined roles for performers and audiences, although this is less the case for non-classical music where audiences may participate in singing and moving to the music. Overall, music cannot be understood in isolation from the context in which it occurs. Culture shapes music, while music, in turn, influences human behaviour. From this perspective we might think of music as âsound that is organised into socially accepted patternsâ.4 However, in modern, multi-cultural societies, where the music that is socially accepted varies between sub-groups and may also differ between individuals within them, a contemporary definition may be that music is sound which is organised into patterns which are socially or individually accepted.
The universality of music
However we choose to define music, it is universal and found in all cultures. It is the very essence of humanity. It rewards, clarifies and enhances shared feelings and experiences. Throughout the ages it has played a significant role in the lives of people all over the world.5 Despite this, specific universal characteristics of music and music making have proved difficult to identify, although music is valued universally for its impact on the emotions. Singing is universal, and most cultures use instruments. Other possible universals are the presence of some kind of pulse; the division of musical sequences into smaller groups of phrases; the equivalence of pitches which are separated by an octave (a series of eight notes occupying the interval between and including two notes, one having twice or half the frequency of vibration of the other); the presence of the perfect fifth (the interval from the first to the last of five consecutive notes in a diatonic scale); and the organisation of pitch into some kind of typically asymmetric tonal system (in Western music the diatonic scale, which includes five whole steps and two half steps in each octave). Overall, however, there are no elements which are consistently shared.6Currently, it is not possible to say with any confidence whether music is the product of culturally learned norms or of universally shared neural and cognitive processes. It is most likely that it is based on an interaction between the two.
An alternative approach to considering the universal characteristics of music is to explore the extent to which music expresses similar emotions. Music of different cultures may communicate common emotions, but through different tonal and rhythmic structures. Certainly, music has the power to express and evoke a wide range of emotions. Songs across the world focus on important, shared human experiences, for instance, friendship, joy, comfort, knowledge, religion and love. These themes, along with songs for children, including lullabies and play songs, are found in all cultures and seem to be universal.7
Music as unique to human beings
Alongside the debate about what might constitute universality in music is the question of whether music is unique to humans. Are the sounds that animals make music? Do animals respond to and make music? With regard to the first of these questions, whether we perceive the sounds that animals make, for instance, bird song as music, is very much dependent on our personal tastes. The answer to the second question is more complex. There is some evidence that animals respond to music. For instance, there is much anecdotal evidence that cows produce more milk when music is playing in the background. This may be because the music reduces stress which can inhibit the release of oxytocin, a hormone which is key to the milk-releasing process. There is also evidence that birds which can mimic human sounds can move in time to music at different tempi.8 Bio-musicologists argue that animal sounds comprise the same musical language as that used by humans. For instance, birds have developed similar pitch and rhythm patterns to humans, while whales use many of the musical concepts found in human music, including similar rhythms, phrase lengths and song structure.9 However, our nearest primate relatives demonstrate few capabilities that could be interpreted as musical. They do not have the capacity to produce complex vocal signals and there is no evidence that they can move in time to a beat.5 Generally, even among primates, vocal signals tend to be closely linked to specific communication circumstances.10 Currently, the jury is still out as to whether animals share similar capacities for making music as humans.
The evolutionary significance of music
A further debate centres on whether music has evolutionary significance. Answers to this question are inevitably speculative. One argument suggests that music exemplifies many of the classic criteria for a complex human evolutionary adaptation. No culture has ever been without music (universality); musical development in children tends to follow broadly the same pattern; musicality is widespread (all adults can appreciate music and remember tunes); there is specialist memory for music; specialised cortical mechanisms in the brain are involved; there are parallels in the signals of other species, e.g. birds, gibbons and whales; and music can evoke strong emotions which implies adaptive behaviours relating to listening and making music.11
If music does have an evolutionary origin, what might it be? The main theoretical positions suggest that music may have evolved in relation to the following:
- mate selection, as an element of courtship behaviour;
- social cohesion, creating or maintaining social cohesion through the promotion of group solidarity and altruism;
- group effort, contributing to the co-ordination of group work;
- perceptual development, contributing towards the more general development of sound perception;
- motor skill development, through singing with movement and other music making providing opportunities for refining motor skills;
- conflict reduction, reducing interpersonal conflict within groups through shared activities which are unlikely to provoke argument or dispute;
- safe time passing, providing a way of passing time which avoids engagement with possible dangerous situations; and
- trans-generational communication, providing a useful memory device for passing on information from generation to generation.12
Several theories focus on musicâs importance in relation to social cohesion, promoting co-operative behaviour and synchronising the emotions of many individuals who can then collectively take action to protect and defend themselves.13 The downside of this is that it also has the potential for developing feelings of hostility towards outgroups. The multi-faceted nature of music making also supports the development of a wide range of important life skills simultaneously, including the development of language; listening, monitoring and evaluation skills; concentration; communication; perception of mood and emotion; and physical skills. Overall, making music involves many different parts of the brain and may have played a unique role in facilitating the acquisition and maintenance of the skill of being a member of a culture, helping us to interact with others socially and providing us with the intellectual skills which distinguish us from other species.14 This is supported by the evidence of the existence of music many thousands of years ago. The earliest musical instrument found was a 53,000âyearâold bone flute, rather like a modern recorder, made from an animal leg bone. This was a sophisticated instrument and showed that time and effort had gone into its creation, suggesting that music was important within that culture.9
Not all authors agree that music has evolutionary purpose. Some suggest that music, along with the other arts, has no evolutionary significance and no practical function. Music has been condemned as an evolutionary parasite15 and as auditory cheesecake,16 an evolutionary by-product of the emergence of other capacities that have direct adaptive value. From this perspective music exists simply because of the pleasure that it affords. Whatever the origins of music, there is no doubt that engagement with it is rewarding for human beings as a species. If this were not the case, individuals would not spend so much time engaged in musical activity.
The functions of music in society today
Music has many different functions in the modern world. These operate at several levels, that of the individual, the social group and society in general, and vary within and between cultures.
The functions of music at the individual level
At the individual level music is a vehicle for emotional expression. We can express ideas and emotions through music which we might find difficult to convey in ordinary verbal interchanges. Love songs, those expressing anguish at broken relationships or grief following bereavement are all examples of the way that music helps us to express complex emotions. Music changes our arousal levels. We use music to relax and to motivate us when we take exercise. Music is effective in changing our moods and emotions. We take advantage of its easy availability17 and use it to manipulate how we feel (see Chapter 4). We may play lively music to prepare us for going to a party, sad music to help us work through difficult emotions, or calming music when we are feeling stressed. Music enables us to express our identity. The kind of music that we listen to indicates something about our lifestyle and beliefs. This is particularly evident in the teenage years where music, dress, our friends and the kind of activities we engage with enable us to tell the world who we are. It is used on online dating sites as one element of creating a good match. Music entertains us and provides us with aesthetic enjoyment through concert attendance, listening to recordings or making music. Actively making music provides us with challenge, stimulates us intellectually, physically and emotionally and we experience reward when we achieve or perform successfully. In addition, musical activities may improve a range of transferable skills including concentration, self-discipline, physical co-ordination and literacy skills18 (see Chapter 8).
The functions of music at the group level
Music fulfils important functions for groups. It provides an alternative means of communication as meanings, understandings and experiences are shared. For instance, historically, music was used in battle to co-ordinate movement, create a shared purpose and help overcome fear. Music binds social groups together and supports developing identities. Football fans have songs dedicated to their teams as do some organisations, for instance, schools, youth groups. Adolescents are in part defined by their music. It creates a social badge reflecting their chosen youth culture, in some cases one that is perceived negatively by some, for instance, heavy metal and rap/hip hop. Historically, music has been used in work contexts, for instance, the BBC programme âMusic while you Workâ consisted of lively music designed to motivate workers on production lines to maintain high levels of productivity, while sometimes it helps individuals literally work in time together, for instance, in marching or rowing. With the increase in office-based work, now it is more likely that individuals will promote their concentration by listening to music of their choice on head phones rather than there being a shared musical environment. Emotional expression is important at the group level, for instance, in protest songs where music has contributed to raising issues about nuclear armament, the Vietnam war or environmental destruction. Music plays a role in most religious worship through the singing of hymns and chanting and can contribute to meditation. It helps us to experience and express spiritual concerns in a way that words cannot. Music is frequently present when we celebrate, for instance, at weddings or birthdays. It is a powerful way of expressing happiness and thanksgiving, particularly when it is accompanied by dancing. Equally it is present at funerals, when it allows us to express grief. When communities undergo periods of change, music can provide continuity, for instance for refugees and immigrants.
The functions of music in society
In society as a whole, music provides a means of symbolic representation for other things, ideas and behaviours. It can, for instance, represent the state, national or regional identity (with national or regional anthems); patriotism; bravery; heroism; rebellion (through songs); and religion (hymns, chants). Conformity to social norms can be encouraged through ballads which can provide warnings to others. Music supports all major ceremonial occasions, e.g. state weddings, military functions, funerals, national sporting events. Who could forget Luciano Pavarotti performing âNessun Dormaâ at the 1990 FIFA World Cup final or Elton John singing âCandle in the windâ at the funeral of Princess Diana? As we respond to the music of our culture in similar ways, it contributes towards continuity and stability and the integration and cohesion of society.
The power of music is reflected in the way that the state may attempt to exert control over it. In Nazi Germany music was carefully selected for use at mass rallies to generate appropriate patriotic emotions. During the Cultural Revolution in China, Western music was denounced as decadent and forbidden. In modern-day Russia, members of the punk band Pussy Riot were sentenced to two years in prison after being arrested on hooliganism charges for performing in Moscowâs Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in 2012. In the same year Lady Gaga was forced to cancel a sold-out performance in Indonesia after Islamic conservatives protested that her mode of dress and dance would corrupt the countryâs youth.
Music not only serves a range of functions in societies, but its nature reflects the values, attitudes and characteristics of that society. For instance, the Western classical tradition reflected a drive to rationalise and understand the environment. The development of systems of musical notation extended what could be passed on to future generations, at a time when oral cultures restricted what could be remembered. Recent recording techniques now mean that music can be passed on without notation. This in turn has led to a greater emphasis on professional musicians being able to play by ear. Technological advances have impacted on the availability of music in our everyday lives, the extent to which we can access music from other cultures, how musical skills are developed and the ways in which music can be performed enabling performances from individuals or groups in separate locations to be co-ordinated.
Psychology of music
The psychology of music, or music psychology as it is sometimes known, has a long history beginning with the ancient Greeks. Pythagoras (580â500 BCE), perhaps better known for his theorem relating to triangles, conducted a series of experiments with a monochord (a one stringed instrument) that laid the ground work for music theory and the inclusion of music in the early Greek education system as a mathematical science along with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. Modern music psychology emerged in the 19th century and had a particular emphasis on understanding the properties of sound and the measurement and nature of musical ability (see Chapter 6). From the 1960s onwards, the field grew to include research o...
