Proposing Empirical Research

A Guide to the Fundamentals

Mildred L. Patten, Melisa C. Galvan

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9780429871351
• Edition: 6
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Science Research & Methodology
• Index: Social Sciences

Proposing Empirical Research: A Guide to the Fundamentals provides step-by-step instructions for students who will be writing their first research proposal in the social and behavioral sciences and using both quantitative and qualitative methods.

The structure of the book enables students to work independently with confidence while writing the first drafts of their proposals. Each major section is divided into short topics and for each topic, students are asked to complete an exercise that leads them toward the goal of preparing a proposal. Numerous illustrative examples throughout the book make the recommendations for proposal writing come alive. In addition, the 10 model proposals provided at the end of the book illustrate proposal writing and provide material for classroom discussions.

New to the Sixth Edition:

• Updates throughout to reflect research and learning in the digital/online environment, e.g., online surveys, digital organization tools, digital recruitment methods for research, and digital databases, records, and archives.
• Discussion of qualitative methods.
• Updated references, model proposals, end of chapter exercises etc.

Proposing Empirical Research is ideal for use in research methods classes where students write a proposal as a term project, thesis/dissertation preparation classes, senior research seminars where proposing and conducting research is a culminating undergraduate activity, and any graduate-level seminar in which the instructor wants to incorporate a project that will engage students in critical thinking about the content area.

Topic 1. What Is Empirical Research?

The term empiricism refers to making observations to obtain knowledge. In everyday life, we all make informal observations of the people and things around us, and, very often, we use these observations as a basis for making decisions. For example, a teacher might observe that their students seem bored and decide to switch to a livelier instructional activity.

The term empirical research refers to making planned observations. By following careful plans for making observations, we engage in a systematic, thoughtful process that deserves to be called research.

First, we need to plan what to observe. For example, we might wish to observe boredom in the classroom. What other variables should we plan to observe in order to aid our understanding of boredom? Maybe we should consider skill areas, such as math versus creative drawing. Maybe we should consider teaching styles or the match between each student’s abilities and the instructional materials that are assigned to them. The possibilities are almost endless, so a researcher needs to select the variables that seem most promising.

Second, we need to plan whom to observe. For example, to study boredom in the classroom, we would plan what types of students to observe (e.g., elementary and/or secondary, middle-class and/or lower-socioeconomic-status students, and so on).

Third, we need to plan how to observe. How will we measure boredom (as well as other variables that might be related to boredom)? Should we ask students directly if they are bored by using a questionnaire? By interviewing them? Should we observe the expressions on their faces and infer whether students are bored? If so, who will make the observations, and on what basis will they make the inferences (i.e., what types of facial expressions will be counted as indicating boredom)?

Next, we need to plan when to observe. Observations made on a hot Friday afternoon might yield very different results from those made on a clear spring morning.

Finally, we should plan how to analyze the data and interpret them. Will we calculate the percentage of students who appear bored while participating in cooperative group activities versus how many appear bored when working individually on an assignment? Will we try to correlate boredom with other variables such as socioeconomic status?

In this book, you will learn how to write a formal research proposal in which all these elements are addressed.

Exercise for Topic 1

Directions: If you already have some ideas for empirical research projects, briefly describe them. If possible, describe two or more. The ideas you write for this exercise will give you talking points for classroom discussions and should be thought of as only tentative. As you work through this book, you will probably decide to greatly modify or even abandon your responses to this exercise in favor of more suitable ones.

Table A1 Sketching Out Project Ideas

Topic 2. Identifying Broad Problem Areas

Most beginning students should identify two or three broad problem areas in which they might wish to conduct research. These are broad areas in which many different types of specific research projects may be undertaken. Examples that illustrate what is meant by broad problem areas include the following:

• Attitudes toward mathematics.

• Alcohol abuse.

• Unemployment.

• Bullying.

• Environmental issues.

• Family violence.

• Immigration.

• Gender roles.

• Data privacy.

• Social media.

Among the sources of ideas for broad problem areas are textbooks that were used in previous courses. Often, the authors of textbooks point out areas in which there is controversy or areas that are not fully fleshed out. For example, in the first chapter of their textbook on educational and psychological measurement, the authors¹ identify “some current issues in measurement,” which include “testing minority individuals” and “invasion of privacy.” In a later chapter, they discuss “problems with personality and interest measures.”² In each of these sections, the textbook author identifies several broad areas in need of additional research.

Other sources that may help in the identification of a broad problem area for research include the following:

• Lecture notes from previous courses.

• Online database searches in your field using broad keywords such as “current issues” or “new avenues of inquiry.”

• Review online reference websites such as PsycPORT.3 Run by the American Psychological Association, it links to articles that cover the latest psychology news.

• “Signature” publications and/or podcasts of major professional associations, such as American Psychologist, published by the American Psychological Association, which carries articles of broad interest to psychologists and the public (as opposed to research journals that carry reports on narrowly defined research).

• Journals that specialize in reviews of research, such as Psychological Bulletin or Review of Educational Research. Typically, these reviews provide a synthesis of research in a variety of problem areas.

• Discussions with professors, especially those who might be serving on your thesis or dissertation committee.

• Discussions with employers and colleagues.

• In addition, most academic fields have encyclopedias, dictionaries, and/or handbooks that summarize research in broad areas. Consult your reference librarian to see if these are available in your discipline.

In Topic 3, we will consider how to evaluate problem areas you are considering.

Exercise for Topic 2

Directions: List three broad problem areas in which you might be interested in conducting research. For each, indicate what brought the area to your attention (e.g., textbooks, personal experience, suggestions from others) and rate the degree of your interest in the area on a scale from 1 to 5.

First Problem Area

1. What brought this area to your attention?

2. How interested are you in this area?

Very interested 5 4 3 2 1 Not at all interested

Second Problem Area

1. What brought this area to your attention?

2. How interested are you in this area?

Very interested 5 4 3 2 1 Not at all interested

Third Problem Area

1. What brought this area to your attention?

2. How interested are you in this area?

Very interested 5 4 3 2 1 Not at all interested

Topic 3. Evaluating Broad Problem Areas

Each of the broad problem areas you identified in the exercise for Topic 2 should now be evaluated. Get feedback fro...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Introduction to the Sixth Edition
• Part A: Getting Started
• Topic 1. What Is Empirical Research?
• Topic 2. Identifying Broad Problem Areas
• Topic 3. Evaluating Broad Problem Areas
• Topic 4. Identifying and Combining Variables
• Topic 5. Identifying Treatment Variables
• Topic 6. Considering Demographic Variables
• Topic 7. Writing Purposes and Hypotheses
• Part B: A Closer Look at Problem Selection
• Topic 8. Finding Ideas in the Literature
• Topic 9. Considering a Body of Literature
• Topic 10. Considering Theories and Frameworks
• Topic 11. Determining Feasibility
• Part C: Selecting a Research Approach
• Topic 12. Qualitative Research
• Topic 13. Survey Research
• Topic 14. Correlational Research
• Topic 15. Test Development Research
• Topic 16. Experimental Research
• Topic 17. Causal-Comparative Research
• Topic 18. Program Evaluation
• Part D: Organizing and Evaluating Literature
• Topic 19. Organizing Literature by Topics
• Topic 20. Evaluating Research Literature
• Topic 21. Considering the History of a Topic
• Part E: Application and Writing
• Topic 22. A Separate Introduction
• Topic 23. An Integrated Introduction and Literature Review
• Topic 24. Writing the First Paragraph(s)
• Topic 25. Using a Topic Outline
• Topic 26. Being Selective and Critical
• Part F: Proposing a Sample
• Topic 27. Sampling in Qualitative Research
• Topic 28. Random Sampling
• Topic 29. Other Methods of Sampling: I
• Topic 30. Other Methods of Sampling: II
• Topic 31. Sample Size
• Part G: Proposing Instrumentation
• Topic 32. Qualitative Instrumentation
• Topic 33. Proposing Published Instruments
• Topic 34. Proposing New Instruments
• Topic 35. Proposing to Measure Demographics
• Topic 36. Ethical Issues in Measurement Methods
• Part H: Proposing Procedures
• Topic 37. Nonexperimental Procedures
• Topic 38. Procedures in Experiments
• Topic 39. Ethical Issues and Procedures
• Part I: Proposing Methods of Analysis
• Topic 40. Qualitative Analysis
• Topic 41. Analysis of Demographics
• Topic 42. Relationships: Nominal
• Topic 43. Relationships: Equal Interval
• Topic 44. Group Differences
• Part J: Writing the Discussion and Other Concluding Tasks
• Topic 45. Writing a Discussion Section
• Topic 46. Giving the Proposal a Title
• Topic 47. Preparing an Abstract
• Topic 48. Developing a Timeline
• Topic 49. Preparing a Reference List
• Part K: Model Research Proposals for Discussion
• Model Proposal 1: A Survey: Sexism in Online Video Games: The Role of Conformity to Masculine Norms and Social Dominance Orientation
• Model Proposal 2: A Survey: Collegiate Athletic Trainers’ Knowledge and Perceptions of Disordered Eating Behaviors in Athletes
• Model Proposal 3: Test Development Research: The Americans With Disabilities Act Knowledge Survey
• Model Proposal 4: Single-Subject Research: The Effect of a Self-Monitored Relaxation Breathing Exercise on Male Adolescent Aggressive Behavior
• Model Proposal 5: Quasi-Experimental Research: Intervening to Decrease Alcohol Abuse at University Parties: Differential Reinforcement of Intoxication Level
• Model Proposal 6: True Experiment: The Influence of T-shirt Graphics on Perceptions and Behavioral Intentions
• Model Proposal 7: Qualitative Research with Focus Groups: In and Out of Love with Hip-Hop: Saliency of Sexual Scripts for Young Adult African American Women in Hip-Hop and Black-Oriented Television
• Model Proposal 8: Qualitative Research with Interviews: Being Targeted as a “Severely Overweight Pregnant Woman”—A Qualitative Interview Study
• Model Proposal 9: Qualitative and Quantitative Research: Benefits of Disease-Specific Summer Camps: Results from Quantitative and Qualitative Studies at Roundup River Ranch
• Model Proposal 10: Ethnographic Study: Ayahuasca’s Entwined Efficacy: An Ethnographic Study of Ritual Healing from “Addiction”
• Appendix A: Locating Literature Electronically
• Appendix B: Electronic Sources of Statistical Information
• Index
• Back Cover