Confidence in Critical Thinking

Developing Learners in Higher Education

Arlene Egan

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9781351670241
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Confidence in Critical Thinking bridges the gap between theory and application for both new and established educators who wish to recognise their own critical-thinking skills, develop them and, in turn, support the development of their learners.

By harnessing findings from research on design, engagement, goal setting, coaching, performance and the influence of language, this book:

• Facilitates educators in moving from thinking about these skills as theoretical concepts to practical application
• Supports educators in their own personal development
• Provides practical exercises and ideas for learner skills development
• Encourages reflection from the educator on their own development.

A must-read for those wishing to examine the assumption that critical-thinking development happens to all learners to an equal degree as a natural part of the education process. Confidence in Critical Thinking is for both learners wishing to understand and develop critical-thinking skills and educators wanting to develop their learners', and their own, critical skills.

Part I

The context for critical thinking

Chapter 1

The power within

Realising confidence in critical thinking

Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to explain what critical thinking is and how we each have the capacity to engage in critical thinking. To begin, we deliberate on how critical thinking is understood as a concept, and then we discuss its relevance to education and 21^st century learning, before focusing on the future needs of learners. An examination of the importance of effective critical thinking from macro to micro levels is conducted as we reflect on how institutions, departments, units and individual educators can support learners’ critical thinking development. Finally, we pay deliberate attention to our own perceived strengths and challenges in relation to critical thinking and consider how we plan to enhance our own skill levels and those of our learners.

What is critical thinking?

‘Critical thinking is not just thinking, but thinking which entails self-improvement.’

(Paul, 1992)

Typically, when I ask learners how they would define ‘critical thinking’, most responses I receive suggest it is a way of thinking that is critical or criticising, as if you were having an argument in your head. Similarly, colleagues (those of whom are new to the concept) will often suggest that, as a concept, it is heavily linked with argumentation and debate. While parts of these responses are accurate, critical thinking offers more than critical argument. I expect that the essence of ‘critical thinking’ is commonly misunderstood because of its name. It reminds me of the plot in the Johnny Cash song A Boy Named Sue. For those of you unfamiliar with it, the song is about the tough experiences of a boy who had been named ‘Sue’ by his father before he left his family. Sue learned to physically defend himself against ridicule as he grows into a man. Then one day he meets his father and as they are rolling around in hand-to-hand combat it becomes clear that being called Sue helped the boy to develop strength (and aggression) that he may not have otherwise developed. This realisation changes his way of thinking and he begins to see his father in a different light. Critical thinking is quite like Sue. There is a tendency for critical thinking to be misjudged because of its name. It is reasonable to suggest that the word ‘critical’ is more frequently associated with negative connotations rather than positive ones. When we call the word ‘critical’ to mind it does not automatically create warm, fuzzy, safe or appealing imagery. This is unfortunate because critical thinking can add positivity, efficiency, effectiveness and success to our lives. Critical thinking is defined by Halpern (2003) as;

the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed.

(p. 6)

This definition explains that critical thinking is not about being negative or that there is only one way to think. Instead, it suggests an approach to thinking that will differ depending on what is to be achieved, tapping into a range of skills necessary to carry out the task at hand.

Halpern’s (2003) definition comes from a psychological perspective and is useful for deepening awareness of how critical thinking relates to learning and performance in higher education. The idea that we use a range of strategies and skills appropriate to the situation and the desired outcome highlights the importance of understanding what these skills are, as well as our perceived strengths and limitations relating to these skills. This definition also helps us to conceptualise critical thinking as being less about banging our fists on the table in an argument and more about engaging in smart, thoughtful consideration. It suggests an approach to thinking about different situations that is practical and outcome oriented.

For the purpose of this book, the definition provided by Halpern (2003), presented above, will be used. This definition is from a particular tradition in psychology known as ‘cognitive psychology’, which is ‘concerned with mental processes (such as perception, thinking, learning, and memory)…’ (Merriam-Webster Dictionary.com). Through these definitions the connection between cognitive psychology and this perspective of critical thinking becomes evident as both are concerned with outcomes and thought processes. There are other perspectives which can be used to understand critical thinking, and as you research and read up on this area you will notice many insights from philosophy and critical pedagogues (see ten Dam & Volman, 2004). There are merits and challenges to each perspective, which you can discover in your own time.

Given its focus on mental process and thinking, other work conducted in cognitive psychology by Kahneman and Egan (2011) suggests that, when we are thinking, we use a dual processing system. In essence this means that our thoughts result in two ways; unconsciously (quick thinking based on experience or intuition) and consciously (explicit engagement with the thought). These are labelled ‘System 1ʹ or ‘System 2ʹ thinking. When we use System 1 thinking, our thinking is fast and automatic, we are not paying much attention to it and rely more on strategies such as gut feelings. System 2 thinking is much more deliberate, analytical and takes more effort (Stupple et al., 2017). Critical thinking is aligned to System 2 thinking, where we experience more deliberate, conscious application of thought which takes effort and energy.

Critical thinking is skill-based and, just like other skills, certain aspects of critical thinking will come more easily to some (see Afshar & Movassagh, 2017). As we practise critical thinking and receive useful feedback, competence and confidence will develop. The specific perspective on critical thinking taken in this book focuses on its application to a range of skills relevant for learning and performance in higher education. These skills are: questioning, goal setting and planning, evaluation, counter-argument identification, synthesis, decision making, creativity and self-regulation.

Having spent a great deal of time in this space, I believe that it is remiss to associate critical thinking only with our heads and to view its development solely as an academic exercise. There is an important ‘softer side’ to critical thinking, one which focuses on our attitude, propensity or inclination to exert the effort needed to reach a thoughtful outcome. Halpern (1998) suggested five dispositions that, if present, increase engagement in critical thinking:

1. Willingness to engage in and persist at a complex task
2. Habitual use of plans and suppression of impulsive activity
3. Flexibility
4. Willingness to abandon non-productive strategies in an attempt to self-correct
5. Awareness of social realities needed to be overcome (for example, the need to seek consensus) so thoughts can become actions (p. 452).

These dispositions are not only relevant for educational contexts but have relevance for our everyday lives. As you read the five dispositions, hopefully you were thinking about yourself and the extent to which you possess each. Exercise 1.0 below is designed to help you to think more critically about this. Like critical thinking skills, you may recognise that you are prone to displaying some of these tendencies over others. It is important to consider that the value of these tendencies lies in their ability to elevate quality of thought from non-critical to critical. Imagine how quality of outcomes could be compromised if you were constantly impulsive. Impulsivity can lead to lucky rather than consistently high-quality outcomes. Consider too the importance of flexibility. As information changes, a person who has the litheness to adopt new information and adapt their thinking accordingly is more likely to reach a critical outcome. Unfortunately, I have met many in education who have not had the willingness to persist and think through complex challenges in a critical way, and outcomes have reflected this.

Exercise 1.0 has been designed to examine self-awareness of your likelihood to engage in behaviours related to critical thinking. For each statement, select the number on the scale which you believe best reflects your tendency. The lower the number, the less likely you are to act in that way; the higher the number, the more likely you are to act in that way. The questions ask you to think in general, so feel free to think about yourself across a number of contexts. If you prefer you can also use this tool to focus your thinking on a specific context; for example, collaborating with your team in work, interacting with family in your daily life, your participation in a club or society you are a member of. It can be interesting to compare yourself across contexts as sometimes we are influenced to behave in certain ways due to the presence of others or the level of personal interest and attachment we have.

Exercise 1.0 Questioning framework to examine your tendency to engage in behaviours related to critical thinking

1. In general, how likely are you to persist with a complex task in an engaged manner?
   1 2 3 4 5
   Not at all Extremely
2. In general, how likely are you to generate considered plans for outcome achievement?
   1 2 3 4 5
   Not at all Extremely
3. In general, how likely are you to be flexible and open to change?
   1 2 3 4 5
   Not at all Extremely
4. In general, how likely are you to have the confidence to speak up or change direction when an approach is not leading to a successful outcome?
   1 2 3 4 5
   Not at all Extremely
5. In general, how likely are you to tackle interpersonal issues head-on in order to ensure a task reaches completion?
   1 2 3 4 5
   Not at all Extremely

This thinking framework can be used as a tool to initiate thinking about tendencies to apply effort, plan, communicate effectively and focus to maximise critical thinking. It can also be used for reflection. The language can be changed to suit the user. It is necessary to think about the best language for each question, so that it makes most sense. The questions are designed to focus the user on the five dispositions suggested by Halpern (1998), which can be found earlier in this chapter. The score on each question can be used as a talking point for development. When examining each response it is important to follow-up with the question; what is your evidence for this score? This allows for deeper und...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• List of tables
• List of exercises
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Part I: The context for critical thinking
• Part II: Critical thinking skills for academic performance
• Part III: Critical thinking skills for monitoring and maintaining development
• Index