15.1 Introduction
15.2 Nitrate Ingress
15.2.1 Influence of NRB on Steel Corrosion
15.2.2 Biological Sulfur Formation by soNRB
15.2.3 Decreased Corrosion Threat due to Nitrate Ingress
15.3 Oxygen Ingress
15.3.1 Influence of Oxygen in SRB-Dominated Environments
15.3.2 Microbial Sulfide Oxidation to Form Sulfur
15.3.3 Cycling of Anaerobic and Aerobic Conditions
15.4 Corrosivity of Sulfur and Polysulfides
15.5 Case Studies
15.5.1 Albertan Oilfield
15.5.2 North Sea Oilfield
15.6 Conclusions
References
The majority of microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) scenarios occur under anoxic conditions and often implicate sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). These bacteria catalyze sulfate respiration and form sulfide as a metabolic end product. While SRB may be one of the most aggressive players in biocorrosion and are by far the most often studied, MIC can involve other organisms as well. The ingress of electron acceptors other than sulfate, such as oxygen or nitrate, into an SRB-dominated environment can lead to changes in the microbial community and in the corrosion threat. For instance, the partial respiration of nitrate by nitrate-reducing bacteria forms nitrite, a corrosive metabolite. The chemical reaction of oxygen or nitrite (a by-product of incomplete nitrate respiration) with SRB-produced sulfide forms polysulfides or elemental sulfur. Sulfur and polysulfides are highly corrosive, and evidence of sulfur-mediated corrosion can be seen when examining the metal surface in the form of severe pitting. Furthermore, changes in microbial community composition may also serve as evidence of sulfur- and polysulfide-mediated corrosion.
DNA pyrotag sequencing was used to determine the microbial community compositions of field samples from a North Sea oil production site and from an Alberta oilfield. In both cases, microbial communities associated with sulfur metabolism were uncovered. An abundance of microorganisms able to oxidize aqueous sulfide using oxygen as an electron acceptor (genera Arcobacter, Sulfurospirillum, Sulfurimonas) were discovered. The potential for sulfur formation by these organisms greatly enhances corrosion threat. The fact that other bacteria capable of using elemental sulfur as an electron acceptor (genera Desulfuromonas, Desulfuromusa) were also found in these samples serves as evidence that sulfur is often produced at these sites. The presence of these different sulfur cycle microorganisms and the subsequent activity shown under oxygen or nitrate ingress is evidence for their participation in MIC.
15.1 Introduction
MIC of steel, caused by the presence and activities of microorganisms or by their metabolites, is a serious threat to oil and gas infrastructure. For a steel structure in an aqueous environment, an anodic reaction is as follows:
A counter-cathodic reaction is required, and in the presence of oxygen, the electrons formed in Equation 15.1 are used for the formation of hydroxide ions:
Most often, the environment within pipelines is kept anaerobic to limit oxygen ingress to prevent Equation 15.2 from proceeding. In such cases, the cathodic reaction becomes
An anoxic environment allows the growth of anaerobic microorganisms, such as SRB. There are several ways in which SRB are associated with MIC. SRB are able to use the hydrogen formed in Equation 15.3 as an electron donor to reduce sulfate and form sulfide (Von Wolzogen Kühr and Van der Vlugt 1934). Some strains of SRB have the ability to use steel as an electron donor directly without the formation of a hydrogen intermediate (Venzlaff et al. 2013; Enning and Garrelfs 2014). The production of sulfide by SRB is a process known as souring; sulfide is a corrosive by-product as well (Gieg, Jack, and Foght 2011). The sulfide can precipitate out of solution as metal sulfides and lead to further anodic depolarization of steel surfaces (Spruit and Wanklyn 1951; Wanklyn and Spruit 1952; King and Miller 1977; Hamilton 1985). Sulfide is also known to promote the entry of hydrogen into a metal surface, which can lead to hydrogen embrittlement of steel.
Although SRB are most often connected with MIC, there are many other organisms found in the same environments. Microbial communities found attached to and growing on metal surfaces are generally living as multicellular biofilms. Biofilms consist of microbial cells embedded i...