Stakeholders are persons or organisations (e.g., customers, sponsors, the performing organisation, or the public), [i]who are actively involved in the project or [ii]whose interest may be positively and negatively affected by the performance or the completion [or outcomes] of the project. Stakeholders may also exert influence over the project, its deliverables, and the project team members.[47]
From this definition, it is clear stakeholders are not âbystanders, those folks out thereâ, but include âthose who are actively involved ⌠or affectedâ â e.g., community or project team. Moreover, Freeman proceeded to suggest, âA stakeholder in an organisation [e.g., project] is (by definition) any group or individual who can affect or is [or could be] affected by the achievement of the organisationâs [e.g., projectâs] objectivesâ.[21]
The most important issue in project management is for the project manager to get project staff, beneficiaries, and other stakeholders to develop a common understanding, agreement, and commitment to a projectâs objectives. A shared perception about objectives, agreement that the project is worth doing [i.e. stakes], and the commitment to make it happen does not happen automatically. It takes effort and involves a considerable amount of communication [i.e. engagements].[72]
In fact, in a video material titled, âAccepting Accountability When Things Go Wrongâ, Morris (PMP)[42] suggests the main reasons for project breakdown include the following: (1) insufficient or disorganised communication; (2) lack of continuous risk identification and mitigation management; (3) inconsistent issue management resulting in delayed resolutions; and (4) inadequate vendor or stakeholder engagement management. Items (1) and (4) directly relate to SM, while items (2) and (3) still partially relate to SM.
Morris further contends, âThese are key areas that must be managed well for project success; the slightest breakdown in any of those areas will cause a negative ripple throughout the projectâ.[42] It therefore follows that âthe slightest breakdown in Stakeholder Management will cause a negative ripple throughout the projectâ, even leading to failure. Indeed, inadequate or failed Stakeholder Management would lead to project failure, particularly (it shall again be underscored) in large and complex projects!
INCOSE[25] maintains, âThere is a near unanimous agreement that successful projects depend on meeting the needs and requirements of the stakeholder/customerâ. Hence, âYou increase the likelihood of customer acceptance and delight at the end of your project if you manage stakeholder expectations from concept through deliveryâ.[7] Accordingly, the project manager âworks through the issues raised and facilitates resolutions in order to avoid discouraging or disengaging stakeholders [i.e. in LIPs]â.[46]
Therefore, Stakeholder Management should not be a mere public relations exercise; SM has a twofold, intertwined purpose. SM purposes align to the notion of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The World Business Council for Sustainable Development[55] states that CSR is, âThe continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving [not ruin] the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at largeâ.
It is accordingly expected that business should apply the same âprincipleâ in all their projects and/or similar endeavours, and should thus consider the needs, concerns, or interests of various stakeholders in the project environment. By way of confirmation, a recent survey conducted by KPMG and the United Nations Environmental Programme has also revealed that stakeholders are generally concerned with the following issues:
- (1) The quality of the companyâs product or service [i.e., input to requirements];
- (2) The trust and confidence [i.e., buy-in] the stakeholders have in the company.
A summary of the King III Report on Governance for South Africa also noted âIt is evident that stakeholders [i.e. their input and buy-in] cannot be ignoredâ. Moreover, in âThe March of Follyâ (1984), Barbara Tuchman[65] equates âignoring the [i]interest of, and [ii]information held by key stakeholdersâ to folly; she suggests that it has led to disaster, from Troy to Vietnam, and to the failure of many large projects!
There is no more excuse for project practitioners getting confused about the purposes of Stakeholder Management or for just going through the motions of whatever SM process is imposed on them, or hoping to put some would-be stakeholders to sleep till the project is done â It is unambiguously clear what purposes SM will seek to achieve:
- (1) Securing relevant input (e.g., requirements) into the project delivery processes;
- (2) Securing buy-in (i.e., support for a winning coalition) on the part of the various role-players (i.e., whose interests are at stake) within the project environment.
In addition to gathering relevant input from key, pertinent stakeholders, a structured Stakeholder Management will equally seek (i.e., by engagement) to secure dependable buy-in from various role-players, both internal and external. This is achieved through a delicate balancing of âforcesâ of power, politics, interest, and influence emanating from different (or differing) parties. Securing input and securing buy-in go hand in hand. There is no better (winning) coalition than stakeholders identifying themselves with the project; âPeople support what they create, and resist what theyâre excluded fromâ.[68]
It flows from the foregoing that any âuncertaintyâ in securing stakeholder input and/or buy-in in terms of project objectives will constitute a âriskâ to the project outcomes!
Therein arises the realisation that any inadequate or failed Stakeholder Management has the potential to cause a large and complex project (e.g., Large Infrastructure Projects, LIPs) to fail. This should convince even the most stubborn of project practitioners that SM is definitively not a side-dish, delegated to a junior team member to âdeal with the people out there!â
Having understood the real purposes of SM (i.e., not about mesmerising some vocal antagonists), the project manager relies on SM processes to, let us say, identify relevant stakeholders from which âsystem requirementsâ should be elicited. Moreover, should a dependable buy-in be secured through suitable engagements of stakeholders, the project manager will also enjoy the benefits of having stakeholders actually supporting and promoting the project â and its outcomes (e.g., its products). This is markedly true in LIPs due to their scale and complexity; LIPs entail a multiplicity of contexts, involving stakeholders in the broader environment.
In fact, Principle 16 of the King IV Code of Governance (South Africa) states, âIn the execution of its governance role and responsibilities, the governing body [e.g., board of directors] should adopt a stakeholder-inclusive approach that balances the needs, interests and expectations of material stakeholders in the best interests of the organisation over timeâ.
Bourne (2009)[11] takes a radical stance regarding Stakeholder Management by asking, âCan an organisational activity deliver its outcome on time and on budget and still be considered a failure, despite delivering 100% of its scope?â; she argues,
The answer must be, âYes, it can, because people [i.e. the project stakeholders] are the key to success or failure!â Other factors can influence the perception (and possible reality) of how successful an activity may be. The process of building Heathrow's Terminal 5 a...