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CHAPTER ONE
WHO WERE THE NAVVIES?
One clue to the question posed in the chapter title can be found in the name ‘navvy’ itself. It is short for ‘navigator’, someone who dug river and canal navigations. But that alone doesn’t explain why a separate name was needed for a group of men who were, apparently, simply manual labourers. This nineteenth-century broadsheet ballad Navvy on the Line gives one of the key characteristics of navvy life:
I am a navvy bold, that’s tramped the country round, sir,
To get a job of work, where any can be found, sir.
I left my native home, my friends and my relations,
To ramble up and down and work in various stations.1
The navvy was not a man who simply lived in a house or cottage and went out to work every day; he was constantly on the move, with no settled home. Another popular song of the day was simply called The Navigators.2 This one gives a picture of the work he did from Monday to Saturday – and what happened at the end of the week. Here are two of the verses:
On Saturday night we receive our pay;
It’s then to the ale-house we go straightway.
And each sits his sweetheart upon his knee,
And we treat them well with the barley brew.
But when several months are gone and past,
Those pretty young girls got thick in the waist.
They run to buy candles, they learn lullabies,
And wish that they still had their dear banker boys.
This suggests something else that sets the navvy apart – these were men who worked hard and lived hard, without too much concern for conventional morality. Because they were always on the move, they lived outside the rest of society, and people who do that are always liable to be treated with suspicion by those living more settled lives. There was no shortage of critics ready to condemn them and their whole way of life and set them alongside other popular bogeymen:
In the making of canals, it is the general custom to employ gangs of hands who travel from one work to another and do nothing else.
These banditti known in many parts of England by the name of ‘Navies’ or ‘Navigators’, and in others by that of ‘Bankers’, are generally the terror of the surrounding country; they are as completely a class by themselves as the Gipsies. Possessed of all the daring recklessness of the Smuggler, without any of his redeeming qualities, their ferocious behaviour can only be equalled by the brutality of their language. It may be truly said, their hand is against every man, and before they have been long located, every man’s hand is against them; and woe befall any woman, with the slightest share of modesty, whose ears they can assail.
From long being known to each other, they in general act in concert, and put in defiance any local constabulary force; consequently crimes of the most atrocious character are common, and robbery, without an attempt at concealment, has been an everyday occurrence, wherever they have been congregated in large numbers.3
From this account, it would appear that the coming of navvies to an area would be about as welcome as the arrival of Genghis Khan and his horde. The truth inevitably lies somewhere in between the balladeer’s portrait of a rather happy-go-lucky chap, working hard and having fun, and the dangerous criminal. The question that has not been answered is: why should the navvy be so very different from every other type of labourer working in Britain at that time? What is it about building a canal that makes it unlike constructing a road, or indeed digging the fields on the farms? Was there something about canal work that made those who took it on rougher and tougher than anyone else?
The farm question is easiest to answer. No one could deny that farm work was hard and that the work started when you were young and continued to the day you were no longer able to cope through old age and infirmity. William Cobbett championed the rural way of life and declared his own childhood to have been all but idyllic, but when he came to describe what he actually did as a young boy he told a story of hardship that few today could even imagine:
I do not remember a time when I did not earn my living. My first occupation was driving the small birds from the turnip seed and the rooks from the peas. When I trudged afield, with my wooden bottle and my satchel over my shoulder, I was hardly able to climb the gates and stiles, and, at the close of day, to reach home was a task of infinite labour. My next employment was weeding wheat, and leading a single horse at harrowing barley. Hoeing peas followed, and hence I arrived at the honour of joining the reapers in harvest, driving the team and holding the plough. We were all of us strong and laborious, and my father used to boast, that he had four boys, the eldest of whom was but fifteen years old, who did as much work as any three men in the parish of Farnham. Honest pride and happy days!4
Richard Hillyer, who worked on a farm as a boy in the nineteenth century, paints a far gloomier picture:
Every night I dropped asleep over my supper, and then woke up just enough to crawl upstairs and fall into bed … A black depression spread over me. ‘This is what it is going to be from now on,’ I thought. ‘Lifting, hauling, shoving, trudging about from day to day, nothing else through all the years.’5
The Victorians were fond of chocolate box pictures of country life, full of pretty milkmaids and jolly ploughboys. The reality was much closer to Hillyer’s portrait. But there were other aspects to farm life that set it apart from that of the navvy. The labourer generally lived in a tied cottage – and as long as the cottage was tied to the farm, so was he and his family, and they became part of a settled community that shared the same sort of work and lived the same sort of lives. As children, they might have been hired out to other farms, but as adults they seldom strayed far from home. The navvy rarely stayed anywhere long enough even to call it home. And if nothing else, farm life had a variety of jobs that changed with the seasons. There were seasons for ploughing and sowing and times for harvest, and there were the winter months that provided the opportunity to catch up on maintenance, relaying hedges, ditching and general repairs. The navvy’s life had few such variations.
It might be thought that road building might offer similar opportunities to canal and railway construction, but the differences were crucial and lie at the root of the whole great transport revolution that began in the middle of the eighteenth century. Before that time, it would not be unfair to say that the state of the roads was a good deal worse than when the Romans had left Britain. There were many reasons for this. Wheeled vehicles were rare, but there was a huge movement of people and beasts, particularly the latter. Between 1776 and 1785 nearly a million beef cattle and almost 7 million sheep were driven on foot to Smithfield market in London.6 It is not difficult to imagine the effect of all those animals on a badly maintained road, their hoofs churning the surface into a quagmire. Even the most important highways were neglected and in some regions decent roads were so rare that outsiders seldom took the trouble to even try to reach them. A writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine in 1739 wrote that ‘Dorchester is to us a terra incognito and the map makers might, if they pleased, fill the vacuities of Devon and Cornwall with forests, sands, elephants, savages and what they please’. Even when roads had a semblance of care taken over them, they were likely to be all but impassable throughout the winter months. The answer to this sorry state of affairs lay with the antique system in place for making and repairing them.
For centuries it had been the job of the individual parishes to take responsibility for the roads within their boundaries. To do the work they were allowed to call on the labour of villagers and required farmers to provide horses and carts. They were not paid, and not surprisingly no one was keen to do very much or indeed anything at all. Theoretically, magistrates could demand that the work was done and impose fines on parishes that failed in their duty. In practice, very little happened. Things began to change with the introduction of turnpike roads, where there was an incentive to provide something rather better than the general highway as those who used it were required to pay tolls for the privilege. The turnpike proprietors were required to pay the costs of building the roads, including labour costs, but once they were completed the duty of keeping them in good repair still fell on the parishes. There was little incentive to take road-building jobs, and none at all for having the task of repairing them. The end result was inevitable. The agriculturist Arthur Young described the roads he had known in the late eighteenth century:
I remember the roads of Oxfordshire forty years ago, when they were in a condition formidable to the bones of all who travelled on wheels. The two great turnpikes which crossed the county by Witney and Chipping Norton, by Henley and Wycombe, were repaired in some places with stones as large as they could be brought from the quarry; and when broken, left so rough as to be calculate to dislocate, rather than exercise. At that period the cross roads were impassable but with real danger.7
Moving people and goods by road varied from being difficult to impossible and no one spent very much time building or retaining them. There was one area, however, where transport was becoming more reliable. Moving goods along navigable rivers was far easier and almost infinitely more efficient than moving them by land. And through the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, river improvements were making the whole situation even better.
Rivers do not generally flow in the smooth regular fashion that would make them trouble-free as transport routes: sometimes they dash along furiously over rapids, and elsewhere they languish in shoals and shallows. More problems for boats wanting to use rivers were caused by the weirs built to divert water for use by millers. These same weirs did, however, help solve the problem of irregular flow. The water was always deep and calm above the weir, and consequently easy to navigate. All that was needed now was a means of getting boats over the top of it. This was accomplished with the flash lock. The weir was made up of moveable paddles. When they were lifted, the water was released in a sudden surge or flash – hence the name for this type of device. Boats could ride down the flash or be winched up against the stream. It was not the safest system; in 1634 a passenger boat with about sixty people on board overturned in Goring flash on the Thames. There were no survivors.
Even at the time of the Goring disaster, an alternative was available: the pound lock. This is the familiar lock, with a chamber closed by gates at either end. For a boat going downhill, the lock is filled with water until it reaches river level, then the top gates are opened and the boat passes in. The gates are then closed, and water drained out until it reaches the level of the lower river; the bottom...
