Cooperative Learning for Intercultural Classrooms

Case Studies for Inclusive Pedagogy

Kate Ferguson-Patrick, Wendy Jolliffe

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351164627
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Cooperative Learning for Intercultural Classrooms helps both pre-service and in-service teachers to develop a well-researched pedagogy that supports inclusive practice for a globalised world. It provides: an overview of theoretical perspectives that illustrate why cooperative learning is an effective learning strategy; reviews research findings about how cooperative learning supports inclusion; and outlines the strategies and methods that support teachers in putting cooperative learning into practice.

Providing a step-by-step guide to implementing cooperative learning for schools, teachers and teacher educators, this invaluable resource includes:

• guidelines for a staged approach to implementation;
• case studies of cooperative learning in classrooms from a range of different contexts, including Australia, England, Sweden, Italy, India, Singapore and Hong Kong;
• guidance on developing an effective professional development programme for a school;
• appendices with valuable information on a range of cooperative learning structures and explanations of the main types of cooperative learning used in classrooms.

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1

UNDERSTANDING THEORY AND PRINCIPLES

Learning objectives for this chapter

By reading this chapter you will develop your understanding of the following:

• the importance of examining beliefs about learning and how they influence practice;

• contrasting perspectives about learning and teaching;

• theoretical perspectives that help explain why cooperative learning is effective;

• key principles that are required for effective cooperative learning;

• the impact of cooperative learning on inclusion to promote democratic classrooms.

Introduction

This chapter begins by exploring beliefs about teaching and learning before looking in depth at the theoretical underpinnings that help explain why cooperative learning is a powerful pedagogy and, when well implemented, it engages, motivates and supports learners. Examining the key elements that are essential to ensure genuine cooperative learning, and how to put these into practice, are discussed in depth. The chapter also demonstrates how cooperative learning supports inclusion to create a democratic intercultural classroom.

Conceptions about learning

Our philosophy, beliefs and values inform our practice and as Brody (1998:25) argues:

Teachers’ beliefs may have the greatest impact on what teachers do in the classroom, the ways they conceptualize their instruction, and learn from experience.

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Beliefs are unlikely to be explicit, but identifying these is an important first step before considering new perspectives. Without reconciling our beliefs or preconceptions, we are unlikely to successfully implement or sustain a new approach to teaching. One useful starting point is to consider the differences using metaphors to explore what it means to be a teacher.

ACTIVITY: METAPHORS FOR BEING A TEACHER

Consider the following metaphors that help describe the work of teachers and, if possible, discuss the differences that each imply with colleagues:

Teachers are:

Examining teachers’ beliefs

These metaphors exemplify very different conceptions about the role of the teacher. These are centred on beliefs about such aspects as: control and authority in teaching; the nature of knowledge and knowing; and the teacher’s role in decision-making. These have a fundamental impact on practice and are important concepts to examine when considering the use of cooperative learning. In exploring different approaches to teaching, three broad orientations have evolved from the work of Miller and Seller (1985):

1. The transmission approach

This approach views the aim of education as the transmission of knowledge to pupils. The teacher usually initiates this through a form of exposition and pupils respond in a structured learning situation, usually carrying out tasks to reinforce what has been taught. In this approach, teachers have a directive role in the learning and determine how the lesson is structured. There is often an emphasis on external rewards and usually little focus on individual differences.

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2. The transactional approach

This approach sees education as a dialogue between the student and the curriculum with the student as a problem-solver. Learning can occur in a number of ways and the teacher is seen as a facilitator who provides the environment for learning. In this approach, social skills are as important as intellectual skills, due to the role of talk to support learning. Pupils share control of the learning as they carry out tasks and each student’s level of development is considered. Motivation is generally intrinsic as the learner is driven by the need to solve problems and carry out tasks.

3. The transformational approach

In this approach, the aims of education are social change and personal fulfilment. Learning focuses on the physical, cognitive, affective and spiritual/moral dimensions and the teacher’s role is to link skills with these to aspects. Pupils have maximum control over their learning so they become self-motivated. Multiple perspectives are promoted and are explored through collaboration and dialogue. The focus is on participatory communities and classroom democracy and social justice is a goal.

Watkins (2005) argues that, the development of learning communities should be a key feature of twenty-first century schools (2005:58). He further explores what ‘a learning community’ means and proposes an ABCD model:

Community as a collective, in which each member is an

Active participant, a sense of

Belonging has developed,

Collaboration between members of the community is frequent, and

Diversity of members is celebrated.

(Watkins, 2005:21)

However, Watkins (2005:8) argues the dominant image of learning, which has become ‘locked in’ over centuries, is the transmission approach in which learning equates to being taught.

Now consider your own beliefs and turn to the questionnaire on page 40 which highlights key differences in these approaches and provides a useful starting point for reflection and discussion. You will also find some suggested answers. Cooperative learning spans both the transactional and the transformational approaches as the following section on theoretical perspectives explains further.

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Theoretical perspectives

Research clearly shows us that one of the first steps in implementing cooperative learning is for teachers to have a clear understanding of why it works (Brody and Davidson 1998; Johnson and Johnson 1989; Sharan, 2010). This chapter aims to provide an explanation of the theories that underpin cooperative learning and to demonstrate, as stated by Lewin (1951:169), ‘there is nothing as practical as a good theory’.

Cooperative learning has evolved from several theoretical perspectives. Slavin (2015) cites four major ones: motivational; cognitive developmental; cognitive elaboration; and perhaps the most developed theory, social cohesion, or social interdependence. Each of these will be explored in depth before considering how such differing perspectives can contribute to our understanding of cooperative learning.

Motivational perspective

The motivational perspective focuses on the importance of motivation in learning. When cooperative learning is structured in such a way that individuals can only complete a task and achieve their personal goals through the success of the group in which they are working, they must ensure they help others in the group to succeed. This perspective focuses on a strong sense of belonging or ‘team spirit’ being established and, just as is the way in sport, there is a strong desire to support the team. This is often reinforced through team rewards for the efforts of the group. But Slavin (1995, 2015) maintains that the normal classroom ethos is one of competition where individuals succeed at the cost of others. In this context, when pupils are perceived as working hard, they are often described by their peers as ‘teacher’s pets’. However, when they work together in teams, they strive for a common goal and are motivated to try hard and help each other. It is for this reason that group incentives that reward their joint efforts are built into many approaches to cooperative learning. David and Roger Johnson, who are among the pioneers of cooperative learning, in some cases give pupils grades based on group performance (Johnson et al., 1998). The rationale is that if pupils value the success of the group, they will encourage and help one another to achieve. Slavin’s approach often includes certificates or other recognition if their average team scores on quizzes or individual assignments exceed a pre-established criterion (1994, 1995). In Student Teams–Achievement Divisions (STAD) (Slavin, 1994), children work in mixed-ability teams to master material initially presented by the teacher and then take individual tests. The teams may earn certificates based on the degree to which team members have improved their own performance from previous tests.

Slavin (1995) cites studies that have examined the impact of such approaches. Of 32 elementary studies of cooperative learning methods that provided group rewards based on the sum of group members’ individual learning, 28 of them (88%) found positive effects on achievement.

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KEY LEARNING POINTS: MOTIVATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

• When pupils value the success of the group, they will encourage and help one another to succeed.

• Group rewards help motivate teams and support the effectiveness of cooperative learning.

• Group rewards should be based on the individual effort and learning of all group members.

Cognitive perspectives

Cognitive perspectives hold that interactions among pupils will support learning as they support the mental processing of information or concepts. That is, through interacting, discussing and explaining, they are processing and clarifying their thinking. The reason for the success of working cooperatively is therefore not centred on motivation, but rather focuses on the cognitive processes that this stimulates. This perspective has two strands: first, cognitive developmental, which is largely derived from the work of Piaget (1926) and Vygotsky (1978); and second, cognitive elaboration (Callender and McDaniel 2009; Schunk 2012; Topping 1996; Topping et al., 2016). The following section explores these strands further.

Cognitive developmental perspective

This perspective is based on the premise that interaction among children on tasks increases their mastery of concepts. Piaget’s theory (Piaget, 1926; Piaget and Inhelder, 1969) helps in understanding that peer interaction is important in questioning, or as Piaget terms it, ‘creating a state of disequilibrium within a child’s own perceptions’. Through this cognitive conflict, a child is stimulated to revise their own thinking, improve understanding and thereby enhance cognitive development. Johnson and Johnson (1979) have developed this as controversy theory, which argues that when someone is confronted with opposing points of view, it creates...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Cooperative Learning for Intercultural Classrooms
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 Understanding Theory and Principles
• 2 Case Studies of Cooperative Learning From Around the World
• 3 Implementing Cooperative Learning in the Classroom
• 4 Professional Development Approaches for Cooperative Learning
• Conclusion
• Appendix 1: Cooperative Learning Structures
• Appendix 2: Types of Cooperative Learning
• Index