Human Factors in Intelligent Transportation Systems

Woodrow Barfield, Thomas A. Dingus, Woodrow Barfield, Thomas A. Dingus

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2014
• eBook ISBN: 9781317781097
• Topic: Computer Science
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Computer Science

The Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) Program is a cooperative effort by government, private industry, and academia to apply advanced technology to the task of resolving the problems of surface transportation. The objective is to improve travel efficiency and mobility, enhance safety, conserve energy, provide economic benefits, and protect the environment. The current demand for mobility has exceeded the available capacity of the roadway system. Because the highway system cannot be expanded, except in minor ways, the available capacity must be used more efficiently to handle the increased demand.

ITS applies advanced information processing, communication, sensing, and computer control technologies to the problems of surface transportation. Considerable research and development efforts will be required to produce these new technologies and to convert technologies developed in the defense and space programs to solve surface transportation problems.

ITS has been subdivided into six interlocking technology areas. This book addresses human factors concerns for four of these areas:
* Advanced Traveler Information Systems are a variety of systems that provide real time, in-vehicle information to drivers regarding navigation and route guidance, motorist services, roadway signing, and hazard warnings.
* Advanced Vehicle Control Systems refer to systems that aid drivers in controlling their vehicle particularly in emergency situations and ultimately taking over some or all of the driving tasks.
* Commercial Vehicle Operations address the application of ITS technologies to the special needs of commercial roadway vehicles including automated vehicle identification, location, weigh-in-motion, clearance sensing, and record keeping.
* Advanced Traffic Management Systems monitor, control and manage traffic on streets and highways to reduce congestion using vehicle route diversion, automated signal timing, changeable message signs, and priority control systems.

Two technical areas are not specifically addressed in individual chapters, but many aspects of them are covered in associated chapters:
* Advanced Rural Transportation Systems include systems that apply ITS technologies to the special needs of rural systems and include emergency notification and response, vehicle location, and traveler information.
* Advanced Public Transportation Systems enhance the effectiveness, attractiveness and economics of public transportation and include fleet management, automated fare collection, and real-time information systems.

Chapter
1
DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATIONS OF ADVANCED TRAVELER INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Melissa C. Hulse
Performance and Safety Sciences, Inc.
Thomas A. Dingus
Woodrow Barfield
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

To alleviate traffic congestion and to more effectively use existing transportation resources, a major national and international effort is currently made to integrate knowledge on driver behavior and decision making into the design of Advanced Traveler Information systems (ATISs). In-vehicle ATISs are often viewed as one of the cornerstones of an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), also known as an Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS), which involves the use of sensor, computer, communication (radio-optical), and control technologies for regulating the flow of vehicles along roads and highways. In this chapter, we provide an overview of several existing ITSs, including a broad overview of the technologies associated with the design of an ITS. These systems are described in more detail in subsequent chapters along with the human factors issues associated with their design and use.

Techniques to reduce urban congestion have typically focused on capital-intensive strategies such as the development of new roads or light rail to increase the system capacity. However, an alternative strategy, which is less capital-intensive, calls for designing an information system based specifically on the traffic information needs of private and commercial drivers. Along these lines, a number of major new efforts to alleviate traffic congestion have centered around the development of transportation information systems. For example, foreign development efforts in the areas of motorist navigation and information systems are already well underway in West Germany, Great Britain, France, and Japan; in West Germany, Great Britain, and Japan, these efforts are already to the point of public testing. In the United States, recent initiatives in this area have been spurred by an announcement from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) of a High Priority National Program Area in Advanced Motorist Information Systems for Improved Traffic Operations. The single largest effort in the United States at this time is a cooperative project between the FHWA, the California Department of Transportation, and General Motors known as Pathfinder. Pathfinder, as its name implies, focuses on the assessment of communications technology for route guidance and in-car navigation in response to incidents and traffic congestion.

An ATIS is only one of many possible approaches to reducing traffic congestion, and it is highly unlikely that any single solution will produce a quick fix given the tremendous increase in the amount of traffic on our major roadways and the complexity of the problems associated with the movement of people and material from one location to another. For example, it is well known that urban travel patterns are intrinsically related to developments in city structure, the locations of workplaces, the locations of drivers and their residences, and the characteristics and activities of drivers (Barfield, Haselkorn, Spyridakis, & Conquest, 1989). However, informationbased solutions to transportation problems do present a number of attractive features: They are relatively inexpensive compared to other solutions (e.g., the building of new roads); they have low social and environmental impact; and in addition to their primary goal of improving the efficiency of roadway use, they can produce a number of secondary benefits by carrying public relations and educational messages. Furthermore, the importance of an ATIS is clear when one considers the specific benefits expected from its usage. For example, an ATIS is expected to reduce traffic congestion, improve navigational performance, decrease the likelihood of accidents, reduce fuel costs and air pollution, and improve driver efficiency. Another benefit associated with an ATIS is that this system will provide safety advisory and warning messages to the motorist. The safety aspects of an ATIS are expected to occur because an ATIS will provide additional, more timely, and more accessible information on traffic regulations, guidance, and hazardous situations. This information will be especially beneficial in decreased visibility situations because of poor weather or congestion (Mobility 2000, 1989).

In the context of designing an in-vehicle transportation system, several researchers have stated that for an ATIS to be effective, its design must be based on a comprehensive understanding of the traffic information needs of drivers (Barfield, Haselkorn, Spyridakis, & Conquest, 1989; Barfield, Spyridakis, Conquest, & Haselkorn, 1989). Specifically, an ATIS is expected to affect four aspects of driver behavior: departure time, means of transportation (buses, train, car pools, etc.), pretrip route choice, and on-road route modification. However, to positively affect driver behavior, we must first understand the decision-making processes of drivers and driving behavior (Barfield, Haselkorn, Spyridakis, & Conquest, 1991; Conquest, Spyridakis, Haselkorn, & Barfield, 1993; Ng, Barfield, & Mannering, 1995; Wenger, Spyridakis, Haselkorn, Barfield, & Conquest, 1990). This idea represents the human factors approach to the design of transportation systems. The application of human factors knowledge and guidelines has already proved beneficial in the design of airplane cockpits, automobiles, computer software, and input devices, and is expected to have a major impact on the design of the ATIS. The following sections discuss the ATIS in detail, including the benefits expected from the use of the ATIS, a description of the basic ATIS components, and a description of ATISs currently in use or being developed in the United States and worldwide.

Expected ATIS Benefits

Congestion

It has been suggested that by the year 2020, highway traffic in many areas of the United States will be reduced to 11 miles per hours (mph). In fact, the average highway speeds on some southern California freeways are already down to 31 mph, while the average speeds during the morning and evening rush hours are lower yet. Congestion is a serious problem in urban and suburban areas and will continue to be so until major steps are made to alleviate it. An ATIS is designed to give drivers real-time traffic information in their cars, allowing them to avoid areas of high congestion, select alternative modes of travel that decrease the amount of traffic on congested roads, or delay departure times, thereby further decreasing the amount of traffic during times of peak congestion. Reduced levels of congestion will improve air quality, decrease personal stress, and likely improve worker health, attitude, and job performance (Mobility 2000, 1989, p. 8).

Environment

It has been argued that implementing the ATIS will have a positive effect on the environment. With better routing information given directly to drivers through in-vehicle displays, less time will be spent driving, thus curtailing car emissions and other pollutants and also reducing the need for fuels. As noted by Mobility 2000, an "IVHS will improve energy efficiently by reducing congestion and improving travel planning and routing. . . . IVHS has environmental benefits through fuel savings, reduced vehicle emissions, and reduced noise levels" (p. 4).

Mobility

Another objective for the ATIS is to increase the mobility of vehicles, which can be accomplished by reaching other objectives, including the reduction of congestion and improving routing efficiency via the implementation of a system such as the In-Vehicle Routing and Navigation System (IRANS), an In-Vehicle Signing Information System (ISIS), the In-Vehicle Safety and Warning System (IVSAWS), and the In-Vehicle Motorist Service Information System (IMSIS). As a result, urban areas will more efficiently manage their existing streets and freeways through improved traveler information and traffic control systems, and both rural and urban area travelers will benefit from improved security, comfort, and convenience. Measured, quantified improvements to mobility will include reduced congestion, accommodation of increased travel and higher trip speeds, less motorist confusion and aggravation, augmented and enhanced driver capabilities, lower cost in the transportation element of producing goods and services, and reduced driver fatigue and frustration (Mobility 2000, 1989, p. 4).

Productivity

Individuals who drive for business-related purposes, especially carriers, can use ITS technologies as key tools to reduce costs and improve productivity. New ITS technologies allow faster dispatching, fuel-efficient routing, and more timely pickups and deliveries.

Safety

Implementing various systems into the driving scenario requires consideration of safety issues as well. Mobility 2000 notes that "many believe that IVHS technologies, such as traveler information systems providing in-vehicle advisory and warning messages, plus future control assist systems, will usher in a new, substantially increased level of motoring safety. . . . Safety benefits will be substantial; they will include reduced fatalities, injuries, and property damage. Further, reducing accidents will keep lanes open and minimize the frustration that can contribute to further accidents" (p. 4). However, if human factors knowledge is not considered in the design of the ITS, these safety benefits may not occur; in fact, the resulting systems may be highly dangerous!

Overview of the ATIS

To accomplish the overall ATIS goal of safer and more efficient travel, several classes of systems have been identified within the ATIS umbrella: the IRANS, IMSIS, ISIS, and IVSAWS (Perez & Mast, 1992). Lee, Morgan, Wheeler, Hulse, and Dingus (1993) outlined the following proposed functional capabilities for each of these systems.

In-vehicle Routing and Navigation System (IRANS)

An IRANS provides drivers with information about how to get from one place to another, as well as information on traffic operations and recurrent and nonrecurrent urban traffic congestion. At this time, seven functional components have been identified: (a) trip planning, (b) multimode travel coordination and planning, (c) predrive route and destination selection, (d) dynamic route selection, (e) route guidance, (f) route navigation, and (g) automated toll collection.

Trip Planning. This component involves route planning for long or multiple-destination journeys, it may involve identifying scenic routes and historical sites, as well as coordinating hotel accommodations, restaurants, and vehicle service information.

Multimode Travel Coordination and Planning. This feature provides the driver with information for coordinating different modes of transportation (such as buses, trains, and subways) in conjunction with driving a vehicle. Such information might include real-time updates of actual bus arrival times and anticipated travel times.

Predrive Route and Destination Selection. This function allows the driver to select any destination or route while the vehicle is in PARK. These predrive selections include entering and selecting the destination, a departure time, and a route to the destination. System information might include real-time or historical congestion information, estimated travel time, and routes that optimize a variety of parameters.

Dynamic Route Selection. This component encompasses any route selection system while the vehicle is not in PARK and includes presenting updated traffic and incident information that might affect the driver's route selection. In addition, the system would alert the driver if he or she makes an incorrect turn and leaves the planned route. Dynamic route selection can generate a new route that accommodates the driver's new position.

Route Guidance. This capability includes turn-by-turn and directional information and can be in the form of a highlighted route on an electronic map, icons indicating turn directions on a headup display (HUD), or a voice commanding turns.

Route Navigation. This function provides information to help the driver arrive at a selected destination, but does not include route guidance. It supplies information typically found on paper maps, which might include an in-vehicle electronic map with streets, direction orientation, current location of vehicle, destination location, and location services or attractions.

Automated Toll Collection. This system would allow a vehicle to travel along a toll roadway without stopping to pay tolls, which would be deducted automatically from the driver's account as the vehicle is driven past toll collection areas.

In-vehicle Motorist Service Information System (IMSIS)

An IMSIS provides (a) broadcast information on services or attractions, (b) access to a directory of services and attractions, (c) coordination destinations, and (d) message transfer capability.

Broadcast Information on Services-Attractions. This information is similar to what might otherwise be found on roadside signs. It may be very similar to the directory of services and attractions information, but the driver does not need to look for this broadcast information; it is presented as the vehicle travels down the road.

Directory of Services-Attractions. This directory provides information about motels; hotels; automobile fuel and service stations; and emergency medical, entertainment, and recreational services.

Coordination w...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Series Foreword
• Contributors
• Preface
• Introduction to ITS
• 1 Description and Applications of Advanced Traveler Information Systems
• 2 Perceptual and Cognitive Aspects of Intelligent Transportation Systems
• 3 Human Factors Design Issues for Crash Avoidance Systems
• 4 Commercial Vehicle-Specific Aspects of Intelligent Transportation Systems
• 5 Human Factors Design of Automated Highway Systems
• 6 The Advanced Traffic Management Center
• 7 Modeling Driver Decision Making: A Review of Methodological Alternatives
• 8 Usability Evaluation for Intelligent Transportation Systems
• 9 Human Factors Participation in Large-Scale Intelligent Transportation System Design and Evaluation
• 10 Survey Methodologies for Defining User Information Requirements
• 11 Determining User Requirements for Intelligent Transportation Systems Design
• 12 Human-System Interface Issues in the Design and Use of Advanced Traveler Information Systems
• 13 Application of Existing Human Factors Guidelines to ATIS
• Author Index
• Subject Index