Learning and Connecting in School Playgrounds

Using the Playground as a Curriculum Resource

Llyween Couper, Dean Sutherland, Llyween Couper, Dean Sutherland

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9781351130899
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Play is critical to children's well-being and development. All students should have access to and adequate time for positive play experiences every day. Learning and Connecting in School Playgrounds invites parents, teachers, principals and education administrators to take another look at their school playgrounds as spaces crucial to learning, well-being and development.

This book combines research findings, commentary and the authors' personal experiences and observations together with the views of teachers, principals, parents and students related to play and play spaces. Key content includes consideration of the role of adults in the school playground, the influence of technology on play, the challenges experienced by children transitioning to new school environments and consideration of strategies to support students' access and participation in the playground. Cases are presented to illustrate the use of an audit tool to enhance school playgrounds. The future of school playgrounds is also considered through the reported hopes and dreams of adults and students and a range of recommendations are made for the review and development of schools' outdoor play spaces.

Learning and Connecting in School Playgrounds is written with a sense of urgency, calling for the recognition of positive play experiences as invaluable to children's education. It includes important and challenging insights to inform and guide decision-making and will be an essential resource for all stakeholders who share responsibility for children's participation and learning during school break-times.

1

Play defined

The search for play

Llyween Couper

He waka eke noa

A vehicle upon which everyone may embark

Play is essential for learning. It is a difficult term to define, and to find in the lives of many children. The opportunities and places for play appear to be shrinking. We hope that as more people question a child’s right to play and revisit play similar to what many adults remember as free, risky and pretend, current trends may shift. Although the exact role of play in children’s development is obscure, evidence suggests there are significant developmental benefits from free play (Smith & Pellegrini, 2008). Children deprived of play are hampered in emotional, social and cognitive development (Belknap & Hazler, 2014; Frost, 2010; Louv, 2005). One thing is certain, for most children, being at play in the school playground supports learning and becomes a nostalgic memory. Nearly 30 years ago Sutton-Smith (1990) claimed that ‘The school playground still provides the one assured festival in the lives of children’ (p. 5).

In this chapter we first define play as distinct from sport and leisure activities. We then consider the contribution that play has for the development of all children and the importance of learning social competence in the natural context of the school playgrounds will be examined. The chapter concludes with a summary of where, when and what children can play, and why the school playground is one of the few available spaces for children to play.

What is play?

Sutton-Smith (2002) suggested that although children know what play is, adults are relegated to observers or spectators when it comes to truly understanding play. Attempts to provide a simple statement to define play risks portraying it as a simplistic behaviour, when it is complex and diverse. Play involves spontaneous, voluntary and child-directed experiences that are intrinsically motivating and imaginative. Gray (2012) describes play as child-directed, initiated and guided by the player according to her wishes, needs and imagination. Play can include fantasy with rules that are flexible, negotiated and not pre-determined. This contrasts with many sports such as soccer, cricket, athletics or rugby, which are rule-governed with players sanctioned for breaking the rules (Pellegrini, Blatchford, Kato & Baines, 2004). Play is also likely to involve a child using imagination, creativity, self-generated rules and non-specific outcomes. Play might involve communication with peers, language, interactions, taking risks and pretending. Play is also at the heart of a child’s emotional and physical development.

Definitions of play vary across disciplines. A commonly agreed definition suggests that play is an activity that takes place for its own sake with the focus on the experience rather than an outcome (Smith & Pellegrini, 2008; Belknap & Hazler, 2014). While Sutton-Smith (2002) suggests that almost any situation or activity can support play, his view contrasts with that of Pellegrini et al. (2004) who considers sport as a form of play. Play experiences are diverse with indiscreet boundaries, so ‘play’ can represent multiple happenings. An important delineation is to consider who initiates and directs play – children or an adult. We view play as essentially child-initiated and directed.

Play has benefits for children’s physical, cognitive, psychological, social and general health and well-being (Sutton-Smith, 2002). It is essential to help learn social skills, adaptation, thinking, creativity and ability to problem-solve (Brown & Vaughan, 2009). Play is an activity that requires an active, alert and non-stressed mind. For activity to be considered play, it should be self-motivating, guided only by mental rules, physical limitations and imagination. Play occurs when participants feel safe and accepted (Gray, 2012). When children are experiencing acute or chronic stress, play might be missing from their lives (Burghardt, 2011; Pellis & Pellis, 2010).

Huizinga (1955) suggests that play is fundamental to people of all ages. Yet playing games is generally associated with childhood, perhaps leading to a view that play is not as important in later childhood adolescence and adulthood. When play is viewed as essential for development and a means of preparing for life there are more questions to answer. For example, is play-fighting serving a useful function in that it is helping children understand what is involved in real life fighting? Grugeon (2001) suggested that play involving a child acting in aggressive, obscene or anti-authoritarian ways highlights power relationships entrenched in children’s play and their developing views of their world.

The diversity of play

Children’s right to play is embedded in the UNCRC, which has clear links to the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007). The curriculum includes five key competencies that closely align with Article 31 of the UNCRC (United Nations, 1989). Each of these key competencies can be developed in social contexts such as the school playground. Here, children can be observed thinking (problem-solving), using language (asking others), symbols and texts (playing games based on painted concrete framework such as four-square or snakes and ladders), managing themselves (experiencing success and failure during a game with peers), relating to others and participating (inviting others and responding to requests to join activities). These five competencies provide the key to learning in every area of the curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 12). Curriculum documents clearly guide educational policy and procedures and this includes expectations that all children growing up in New Zealand will have the right to access play spaces during school break-times.

Play is diverse and influenced by the age of the players and equipment or resources available. Almost all children play and have a need for play from an early age. Children’s early play is characterised by discrete stages/types. For example, Smith and Pellegrini (2008) identified the benefits from play beginning with loco-motor play. This early form of play involves gross body activities that develop muscles for strength, endurance and skill. As children develop, play becomes increasingly social with the participation of caregivers and peers. Once children reach two to three years of age, play often involves peers. Another variation is object play which is when blocks, puzzles, dolls or toy vehicles are used. The benefits from this play are dependent on the creative, inquisitive mindset of players. Some toys are heavily marketed and provide limited opportunities for creative play and become popular due to their branding and collectability.

Language play includes using repetitive rhymes and creative vocabulary. Rhymes and jingles contribute to the playfulness and enjoyment of communication and become increasingly sophisticated as children engage in socio-dramatic play. Early pretend play involves using an object as something else, with more sophisticated versions involving role-playing and intricate story lines. It is thought that narrative structures of pretend play mirror and are influenced by stories from oral tales, books and screens.

Many writers have described the varieties of play that children can experience. Sutton-Smith (2002) described nine categories of play which can be labelled based on children’s actions:

• Mind or subjective play: daydreams, fantasy.
• Solitary play: collections, rebuilding, handicrafts.
• Playful behaviours: playing tricks, playing fair, playing around.
• Informal social play: joking, parties, dancing etc.
• Vicarious audience play: television, films, parks, virtual reality.
• Performance play: playing piano, play acting.
• Celebrations and festivals: birthdays, Christmas, carnivals.
• Contests: (games and sports): rugby, netball, cards, cricket, horses.
• Risky or deep play: caving, kayaking, cycling.

The time spent in the various forms of play is lacking in research and while there are generally positive benefits from all forms of play, some play is often discouraged as it is considered too noisy, disruptive and leading to fights and unacceptable behaviour. For example, war play that uses guns and weapons and mimics superhero models is often a concern for educators and parents, as it is thought to increase antisocial behaviour (Smith & Pellegrini, 2008). Conversely, research suggests that gun play is similar to other rough play and is not aggressive or violent but rather a form of socio-dramatic play that is honing co-operative and social skills (Holland, 2003; Levin, 2006).

Play and brain development

Play is critical to children’s neurological development. Perry, Hogan and Marlin (2000), suggest that play, more than any other activity, fuels the healthy development of children of all ages and abilities. It is a natural learning tool that develops coordination of both fine and gross motor skills and because it is fun, it helps to strengthen emotional well-being while reducing feelings of anxiety, isolation or vulnerability. It is believed that play can benefit the ability of children to focus, persist, and problem-solve and learn. Observations of primary school children show that repetitive elements in play are able to be practised with total engagement and focus. More recent research confirms that although play during break-times facilitates primary school children’s attention to tasks children do need to interact on their own terms and engage in free play with their peers (Holmes, Pellegrini & Schmidt, 2006).

Play is a powerful learning medium which not only contributes to the development of self-control and self-regulation but also to understanding symbolic representation (Frost, 2012; Perry et al., 2000). Play can also provide the transition from real to abstract including symbolic systems needed for future tasks such as reading, writing, problem-solving and creative tasks. According to Vygotsky (1978), children at play can set their own levels of challenge which are developmentally appropriate and famously referred to as the ‘zone of proximal development’. This is the zone where adult input can support learning, however ensuring that children maintain control of activities is important for their development (Whitbread, 2010). When children are encouraged to take responsibility for experimentation, risk taking, problem-solving and to learn both from success or failure, they are gaining skills that will support them in their future lives, learning or workplace.

While play in school playgrounds provides opportunities for a great deal of informal learning, students undertake play voluntarily without being aware of all the gains that academics claim are occurring. Moyles (1989) summarised the social, emotional and cognitive skills learned in six categories of play activities that are offered in a school playground. From repetition children learn to practise, master and control new skills, from games they learn to use rules and cognitive strategies, they learn conflict resolution from therapeutic skills, from linguistic skills they gain skills in communication, from self-concept skills they learn to adopt different roles and from empathetic skills they learn the skills required in friendship and co-operation. In a mainstream school there is a need to design play spaces for diversity ensuring that all children have opportunities to engage in a variety of play opportunities to experience feelings of belonging, friendship, acceptance and inclusion in addition to the social, emotional and cognitive skills identified by Moyles (1989). Since the 1950s, increased research into children’s social competence has attracted researchers to the school playground (Doll & Brehm, 2010). The focus shifted to research and interventions concerned with intimidation and bullying. As this behaviour often occurs in school playgrounds, interventions to strengthen this context as a safe and positive environment for all children have become a strong focus.

Similar to many other countries, schools in Scandinavia responded to new understandings of the importance of social interplay which increased the movement towards inclusion of children with special educational needs in the 1960–1980s. Once the importance of peer relationships was given credence, school playgrounds assumed a higher status. The physical features of the playground began to gain attention as it was seen that structures and tools of play influenced children’s play including those with disabilities.

In Finland, play is a serious business where educators understand the essential role play has in children’s learning. High quality play-based learning is considered to not only enrich academic development but also to boost attainment by developing qualities such as attention span, perseverance, concentration and problem-solving. In Finland, breaks from academic instruction occur every 45 minutes with play and socialisation in the playground – regardless of the weather. Environment-based education is encouraged with classroom experiences moved into natural settings so that learning is not just information sharing but the interaction between the student and the environment (Louv, 2005).

School playgrounds

School playgrounds are critical to children’s well-being and learning. Brofenbrenner’s (1994) ecological and social development theory supports the notion that the places where children spend time have significant influences on their lives. A holistic, ecological approach to wellness situates the school playground during break-times with the potential for prompting student health and well-being. It is the place for learning how to deal with anger and aggression (self and others). It is also where fun, laughter, excitement, imagination, discovery and pleasure are experienced and shared with peers.

Play that occurs during break-times fits well with constructivist theory where individuals construct their own ideas or understanding through a combination of existing knowledge and immediate experiences. Development outcomes are often difficult to predict due to the individualised knowledge and perception of experiences. However ‘learning through doing’ which also happens in a busy playground can be identified as a cognitive learning process. According to Dewey (1958), a natural form of learning occurs by participating in everyday experiences, problem-solving skills are developed, lessons learned and then applied in real life situations. Hands-on experiences are considered obvious when we consider the training of doctors, nurses, teachers and builders. They don’t learn by sitting in a classroom every day. Children playing in a playground are learning. A recent emphasis on play-based learning has seen ‘play’ moved into the classroom and curriculum. Although an activity may look like play, the learning outcome is not always self-directed with ownership and control remaining with the educator not the student. Children participating in a teacher-led classroom activity may well be learning but this is not play as we understand it.

Several environmental factors, described by Brofenbrenner (1994), influence the playful activities of students during break-times. Other people play important roles in students’ development: for example, friends, peers, family/whānau,¹ school administrators, teachers and wider co...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of contributors
• Introduction
• 1. Play defined: The search for play
• 2. School break-times: To be or not to be?
• 3. Playgrounds for learning, communicating and playing
• 4. The role of adults in school playgrounds: The no-rules playground
• 5. Traditional games and media informed play in the playground
• 6. Moving from early childhood to primary school playgrounds
• 7. Transitions from primary to secondary school playgrounds: From reality to virtual reality
• 8. Landscaping for play: Who and what is the playground for?
• 9. Culturally responsive practice in the school playground
• 10. Improving school playgrounds: Making changes based on data
• 11. School playgrounds for the future: What do children and adults want?
• Index