Musical Savants

Exceptional Skill in the Mentally Retarded

Leon K. Miller

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9780805800340
• eBook ISBN: 9781317786078
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Experimental Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Using the case study of "Eddie" as his framework, Professor Miller challenges the prevailing notion that musical savants are essentially phenomenal tape recorders and deals with the issue of "idiot savants" in a detailed, empirical investigation. Through "Eddie" the author discusses, in specific and in general, topics including the background and historical context of musical savants; other cases; data regarding the nature of the skills exhibited and the associated developmental deficits; and descriptions of a series of experiments used to define Eddie's talent. Finally, the author considers more general issues raised by savant behavior, particularly functions served by savant behavior, theories regarding its etiology, and its role in general development.

1 Musical Savants of the Past

Was there anything in Eddie's background to suggest that he would develop a strong interest in music? Perhaps a close look at his personal history would reveal some special factors at work. Hospital records of Eddie's birth indicate that, although he was born slightly premature (estimated gestation of 36 weeks compared to full term of 40 weeks) and weighed somewhat less than normal (5 lb. 14 oz.), there were no difficulties in delivery. His Apgar scores were 9 and 10 on a 10-point scale, indicating that he appeared healthy and was breathing well moments after birth. Eddie and his mother were discharged from the hospital two days later. A return to the hospital at one month of age for conjunctivitis, an eye disorder, resulted in a thorough examination, including an electrocardiogram. Eddie was diagnosed as suffering from patent ductus arteriosus, a congenital heart disease. Bilateral cataracts were also noted, and interviews with Eddie's mother revealed for the first time that she had been ill with rubella during the first trimester of her pregnancy. Digoxin was prescribed for Eddie's heart problems, with exploratory surgery planned as soon as his general health improved, as he had lost weight during the first month of life. A series of illnesses prevented surgery until 10 months of age. At that time, Eddie's weight, height, and head circumference were all lower than the fifth percentile for his chronological age. Physical examination revealed no response to a loud noise, so Eddie was diagnosed as being both blind and deaf. These handicaps are commonly associated with rubella in utero, however, and probably were not formally assessed at the time. The operation for patent ductus arteriosus was described in hospital records as proceeding without complications.

During the next two years, Eddie visited the hospital frequently; records suggest that he was developing quite slowly and suffered continuing physical complications. At 2 years of age, Eddie's weight was still quite low (17 lbs. compared to a norm of 25-30 lbs.) and another electrocardiogram indicated possible ventricular septal defect. Eight months later, he was admitted for pneumonia, his weight still at 17 pounds. Interestingly, a comment written by one of the attending physicians at this time questions the diagnosis of deafness, describing Eddie as being able to hear and repeat words, yet no further information is given. There are no medical records for the next two years. At about age 4, Eddie began attending a preschool program for multiply handicapped children. An eye examination soon thereafter indicated that his cataracts were operable and a bilateral lensectomy was performed at age years. Eyeglasses were prescribed and Eddie's vision soon became good enough to discern colors and large figures.

Not surprisingly, there is much less formal documentation of Eddie's social and psychological development before he attended preschool. The results of the Bayley Infant Development Scale given at age 3% years were interpreted as inconclusive. Although attracted by brightly colored toys, Eddie did not attempt to reach for objects and was generally unresponsive. Consequently, few items of the scale were attempted. He was reported as having no speech, although responding to the word "no." Eddie was able to sit up, could walk with assistance, but could not feed himself, according to the report at that time. An auditory screening at age 4 mentions extremely restricted receptive and expressive language with possible unilateral hearing loss. The latter was confirmed one year later with a more formal behavioral audiological examination indicating no response to tones presented to the left ear. I first saw Eddie at age 5, and his speech to me was almost exclusively echolalic, or a virtual repetition of what he heard, except for a few conversational cliches (e.g., "How are you? I'm fine. Good-bye."). The staff at the center described Eddie as being somewhat more talkative than the other children at the center, but that his tendency to repeat what he heard also characterized his interactions with them.

The remaining data regarding Eddie's early development were obtained through repeated interviews with his mother. Eddie was described as a sickly child from birth. He was very finicky about eating and often had difficulty retaining food. It was apparent to Eddie's mother that he was quite unlike her other children. When his heart problem was diagnosed, the hospital staff told her that Eddie's chances for survival were not very good. A person of deep religious conviction, she was determined to keep him alive, and worked hard to improve his eating. (Among his disorders were physical problems in chewing and swallowing.) Even today as a 9-year-old, Eddie eats best when his mother serves him. Eddie's mother also reported she tried hard during the first two years to get Eddie to react to her. As a baby, he was very quiet and would whine rather than cry. Later, he vocalized little. Consequently, she recalled singing and "baby talking" to him more than to her three previous children.

Eddie was also relatively unresponsive to his physical environment, according to his mother, although he seemed to listen intently to the radio and phonograph when they were played. In contrast to the medical note at age 10 months, Eddie's mother reported that he was easily disturbed by loud noises. (Even today, when the sound in a room becomes too intense or confusing, Eddie begins to shake and covers his ears.) Brightly colored objects also attracted his attention, and one activity he enjoyed was repeatedly twirling spinning tops and bottle caps on the floor. He also enjoyed toys such as rattles, music boxes, and so forth that made any kind of sound, as long as it was not too loud. Much of the time during his infancy was spent in his crib, although having three older siblings in the house, Eddie was probably rarely far from the center of family activity. His oldest sister often helped in caring for him.

Eddie's mother evidenced some inconsistency in her recollection of when Eddie first showed an interest in playing music. On one occasion, she reported this as being before his first birthday, while in another interview, she said it was at about 2 years of age. In any case, Eddie was given a toy piano and it quickly became his favorite toy. The piano was soon broken, however. Eddie was also exposed to a musical instrument at church, where he was given the chance to pick out melodies on the piano in one of the meeting rooms where his mother attended services. It is not clear how prolonged this musical exposure was, but it was casual and untutored. At the time Eddie was first seen by me, no formal music lessons had been attempted and there was no piano in the home. None of the other members of the family plays an instrument, and there is no history of a special musical talent in the family.

Eddie's history does give some clues regarding the origin of his musical interest and talents. As with any single case, it is difficult to distinguish those factors that are central to his development from those that are incidental. His medical records indicate a series of problems early in his life—rubella by his mother during pregnancy, congenital heart disease, and a general failure to thrive. However, Eddie's mother evidently provided special intensive care during his early years, and was determined to offer her own remediation for his various difficulties. Either the central nervous system anomalies associated with his medical problems or the special care provided by his mother maybe factors in Eddie's sensitivity to music. Eddie's early sensitivity to sounds may also have been an important sign of his developing musical talent, but it is difficult to distinguish, retrospectively, these sensitivities from either a low irritability threshold or a baby's normal interest in sounds. Some of Eddie's early behaviors, his delight in twirling tops and bottle caps, for example, are often found in childhood autism (American Psychiatric Association, 1980), and he apparently was not very responsive as a baby. Savant skills have occasionally been associated with autism (Rimland, 1978). As a 5-year-old however, Eddie's obvious pleasure in social interaction certainly did not indicate a primary diagnosis of autism, because a lack of responsiveness to other people is a central feature of this syndrome (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). In many respects, Eddie's exposure to music was unexceptional, although there was undoubtedly music for him to listen to. (His family's small apartment features a modern stereo system with an extensive record collection.) However, his early reaction to musical instruments was exceptional. Eddie evidently delighted in making as well as listening to sounds, and his early productions were noticed by his family as being very musical in nature. In summary, Eddie's history suggests many potential elements contributing to his developing sensitivity to music, but lacking comparison data, it is impossible to evaluate their importance. Perhaps descriptions of other musical savants can provide clues regarding the particular factors responsible for Eddie's precociousness. These histories may also provide a general framework for considering the type and range of skill found in musical savants.

Estimates of musical savant occurrence among the developmentally disabled vary widely. For some clinical groups, for example autistic children, the estimated incidence is as high as 10% (Rimland, 1978). In an extensive survey of public residential facilities for the mentally retarded, Hill (1977) found the phenomenon to be extremely rare (.06%). As noted earlier, the lack of agreement concerning the definition of "idiots savant" syndrome makes any estimate of incidence difficult to evaluate. Moreover, the very paradox suggested by the label of the syndrome seems to lead to confusion and contradiction in case descriptions. A good example of this problem occurs in the extensive descriptions of one of the earliest known cases of savant syndrome, Thomas Wiggins, also known as "Blind Tom."

Textbooks on mental retardation often mention Blind Tom as an example of the idiots savant syndrome (e.g., Barr, 1973; Sellin, 1979), yet the pertinent literature indicates considerable disagreement in descriptions of both his special skills and disabilities. Thomas Wiggins, born a slave on a Southern plantation in 1849, had exceptional interest in music very early in life. He was blind from birth, but exceptionally sensitive to the sounds of nature, imitating animal and bird calls very accurately. Before the age of 4, he was picking out melodies on the piano in his owner's mansion (Southall, 1983). Early music lessons were apparently provided by the plantation owner's wife, an accomplished musician. By the age of 8, Tom was giving concerts locally and at age 10 was concertizing throughout the South. An active performing career continued through the remainder of the 19th century for Tom, and included tours of Europe as well as much of the United States. These performances usually contained pieces from the classical piano repertoire, Tom's own compositions in various musical "styles," and demonstrations of particular skills, especially his ability to reproduce original compositions by others upon a single hearing. He possessed absolute pitch, and was able to reproduce even complex dissonant chords without error.

Southall (1979, 1983) has provided a comprehensive analysis of popular reactions to Blind Tom's music during his lifetime. Generally, these reactions suggest a level of talent equivalent to that of other concert pianists of the period, comparing him favorably to Louis Gottshalk, among others. Southall (1979) concludes that the occasional dismissals of "Tom's playing as "mere empty imitation" were likely to have been politically motivated. More formal documentation of Tom's particular skills was provided by testimonials from music teachers of the day. For example, Tom's ability to reproduce dissonant chords was examined specifically by Charles Halle and Ignatz Moschele when Tom was 17 years old. (Unfortunately, the extent of Tom's memory for dissonant material was not tested thoroughly, for example with a succession of dissonant chords. As we shall see [Chapter 4], such a test may very well have suggested some important constraints upon Tom's immediate memory capacity.) Similarly, his ability to reproduce original material played by others was tested on a variety of occasions. His reproductions of the material were very impressive to those in attendance. However, the original material itself has been described as "trite little pieces of a popular type" (Tutein, 1918); in other words, pieces written in styles with which Tom was likely quite familiar. Even so, there is some disagreement regarding his accuracy. On one occasion, his rendition is described as "perfect as to form, though not correctly as to actual notes" (Southall, 1983, p. 20). A more detailed description is provided by Tutein (1918), who was Tom's teacher for several years:

I must also dispel the idea that Tom could repeat anything after having heard it once. The lessons were two hours in length, and it was often necessary for me to play over the compositions fifty times before he would acquire them. He could, however, remember an astonishing number of measures. I would "feed" him eight or ten measures at a time and then he would play them over several times and we would go on with others. After he had a fair impression of the piece, I would play it as an entirety and he would listen intently.

(p. 91)

This account suggests that to the untrained ear, perhaps, "Ibm's reproductions were perceived as literal, while in fact, they may have reflected a more general sensitivity to the many melodic and harmonic conventions of the day. In many respects, of course, this makes Blind Tom's musical skills all the more impressive, for it indicates remarkable command of the principles or rules of composition prevailing in his musical environment rather than a literal or rote memory of what he heard. This conceptual understanding is also evident in Blind Tom's musical compositions, which incorporate many of the melodic and stylistic conventions of the nineteenth century classical tradition, albeit in highly personal and original ways (Southall, 1983). Tutein's description suggests another facet to Blind Tom's remarkable musical talent— his long-term memory for material. His active repertoire was estimated to include over 3000 pieces. On several occasions, he is reported as flawlessly recalling original material heard as much as 14 years previously (Southall, 1983).

Blind Tom's frequent billing as an "untutored musical genius" was misleading at best; he was given music lessons throughout much of his life, often by internationally known musicians of the time (Southall, 1983). Most likely, the exaggerated claim of a largely untutored talent was made to enhance the appeal of concerts for the curiosity seeker. Were contemporary descriptions of Tom as an imbecile and a low-grade idiot similarly a fabrication to increase his singularity? Descriptions of Tom's nonmusical side certainly indicate a degree of deviation from normal development. Reports of his behavior on and off stage described several mannerisms—rapid flicking of the fingers, grimaces, and bodily twirling and rocking—which often are present in cases of mental retardation with associated sensory deficit (Berkson, 1983). Possibly these mannerisms were actively encouraged by Tom's guardians to exploit the theatrical aspects of his concerts. However, some described Tom's offstage behavior as even more eccentric. (Barfield, 1868).

Descriptions of Tom's language are conflicting; his earliest speech was described as echolalic. Rather then responding to the intent of speech directed toward him, Tom would repeat what was said (Barfield, 1868). Moreover, he seemed more interested in the sounds provided by his physical environment than by language. Later, Tom was occasionally described as speaking to himself in an unintelligible jargon (Southall, 1983). lutein described conversations with Tom as a young adult during piano lessons as being minimal and monosyllabic. When not engaged in music during these lessons, personal stereotypies (e.g., head rolling, body twirling) surfaced with some regularity (Tutein, 1918). The testimony during the trials over Tom's guardianship was also highly conflicting. According to his mother at one of these trials, as a child Tom did not "have the knowledge of other children." At the same hearing, Tom's teacher for nine years described him as being "deficient in all senses, except that of music and that which brings the consciousness of dinner time," yet added that "Iom had a prodigious memory (Southall, 1983, p. 255). In contrast, Southall mentions several conversations, one with a stranger on a train and one with the judge during the hearing (Southall, 1983), which indicate that Tom had at least a minimal conversational competency in language. A considerably higher level of competency is suggested by the statement that he was writing poetry at age 17 (Southall, 1979). Court judgments of "Tom as not being mentally competent (judgments of non compos mentis in 1870 and 1886) did not necessarily reflect his level of overall functioning accurately, since Tom's guardians were quite interested in maintaining control over his lucrative concert career.

Despite these conflicting reports, several characteristics do emerge from descriptions of Blind Tom. First, although there may be some controversy regarding his exact level of mental functioning, it is clear that there was a great discrepancy between Tom's musical performance and other areas of his life. This contrast was not seen in the functioning of touring musical performers of the day (Trotter, 1878). Second, Torn was strongly interested in music very early in his development; he had an especially sensitive receptivity to the nonverbal sounds of the environment and an ability to reproduce them. Finally, descriptions of Tom's playing suggest that his ability extended considerably beyond imitation of what he heard, although his ability to imitate was certainly remarkable in itself. Both the intensity of Tom's emotional reactions to music (Southall, 1983) and his improvisational sophistication suggest a talent considerably more complex than mere mechanical or literal repetition of what he heard.

Explanations of Blind Tom's talents at the time indicate that critics were quite unsettled by his combination of talent and childlike behavior. One solution was to minimize his talent, and as Southall (1983) documents, this approach was often taken by editorials of the day:

He is not a genius at all—he is simply a great curiosity. His playing is extraordinary, not because it is very good, but because it is the playing of a blind, foolish, uneducated boy. He is not a great pianist nor can he ever be one because he lacks the intelligence; he has a great perception of the sense of charm of a melody, but of course no comprehension of a musical composition.

(p. 83)

Alternatively, perhaps the apparent "imbecility" of Blind Tom was a clever ruse, and an explanation suggesting an element of P. T. Barnum manipulation was at work. Stephen Heller, for example, was skeptical: "He seems a master acrobat . . . Do you believe those gambols, all that idiot and demoniac business to be natural? Ever since Barnum, I have had an extreme distrust of these American marvels" (Southall, 1983, p. 65). In either case, such an extreme skill discrepancy was seen as not possible, unless perhaps some mystical transfer of skill was involved:

(We) leave our readers to determine whether the Chinese transmigration theory is correct—whether the soul of some unfortunate defunct musician, misbehaving on Earth, has been banished into the awkward and angular body of Blind Tom.

(Barfield, 1868, p. 7)

Thus, although articles describing Blind Tom's performance skills are numerous and filled with superlatives, the specifics of the inaccuracies or preferences in his playing are usually lacking. Similarly, it is quite certain Tom was retarded, but descriptions of the nature and degree of retardation are highly conflicting.

Lack of clarity and conflicting reports characterize the majority of musical savants described in the literature. Table 1.1 summarizes some of the information available regarding musical savant cases for which there is more than passing mention in the literature. Additional cases mentioned by Rife and Snyder (1931), LaFontaine (1968), Duckett (1976), and Hermelin, O'Conner,

and Lee (1987), have been omitted because each contains insufficient information to permit comparison of either skill level or characteristics associated with skill presence. In the remaining instances, formal evaluations of aspects of musical performance are available for only two other cases (Charness, Clifton, & McDonald, 1988; Sloboda, Hermelin, & O'Conner, 1985); the results of these investigations are discussed in more detail in Chapters 4 and 5. For the remainder, the descriptions tend to concentrate upon the salient personality characteristics and developmental history in each case.

The brief descriptions of savant's musical performance contained in these reports are at variance with popular conceptions of savant skill, particularly the notion that savant musical performance is like that of a tape recorder (the performance faithfully reproducing sounds without interpretation or even comprehension of what is being reproduced). Certainly, there is o...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1 Musical Savants of the Past
• 2 Evaluating Savant Skill
• 3 Absolute Pitch
• 4 Short-Term Memory
• 5 Musical Idioms
• 6 Correlates and Consequences of Savant Skill
• 7 On the Nature and Origin of Musical Savants
• Epilogue
• Appendix A: A Music Teacher's Perspective on Savant Skill
• Appendix B: Record of Participation
• Appendix C: Note Duration Values and Rhythms Task
• References
• Author Index
• Subject Index