Whales and Dolphins

Cognition, Culture, Conservation and Human Perceptions

Philippa Brakes, Mark Peter Simmonds, Philippa Brakes, Mark Peter Simmonds

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781849712255
• eBook ISBN: 9781317974680
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biowissenschaften
• Subtopic: Ökologie

Whales and dolphins are icons for the conservation movement. They are the most conspicuous ambassadors for entire marine ecosystems and possibly even for the biosphere as a whole. Concurrent with our realisation of impending threats to their environment is a growing scientific understanding of the social and cognitive complexity of many of these species.

This book brings together experts in the relevant diverse fields of cetacean research, to provide authoritative descriptions of our current knowledge of the complex behaviour and social organization of whales and dolphins. The authors consider this new information in the context of how different human cultures from around the world view cetaceans and their protection, including attitudes to whaling. They show how new information on issues such as cetacean intelligence, culture and the ability to suffer, warrants a significant shift in global perceptions of this group of animals and how these changes might be facilitated to improve conservation and welfare approaches.

1

Why Whales, Why Now?

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Philippa Brakes

 

 

INTRODUCTION

There can be little doubt that we are at a pivotal point in human history: the global commitment and cooperation required to abate and mitigate climate change will be of an unprecedented scale. In rising to the considerable challenges of tackling climate change, and other environmental threats, we must also consider how our action — or inaction — is likely to influence the lives of every other species, in every habitat on the planet. At the end of the first decade of the 21st century we face a convergence of crises: on the one hand, dramatic changes in our environment threaten to have an influence on every organism on the planet, and on the other, a large-scale global economic crisis is likely to influence our ability — and perhaps willingness — to tackle these pressing problems.

Why, then, should we turn our attention to cetaceans, an entire order of mammals that includes the baleen whales, beaked whales, sperm whales, dolphins and porpoises (some 83 species in total, with new additions still occasionally being identified)? As a group of animals they are fascinating and compelling. But, there are already many books about cetaceans and there are many other threatened, vulnerable and endangered species. The answer is arguably threefold.

First, whales remain today, as they did in the 1960s and 1970s, an icon for the environmental movement; a motivating emblem of what could be lost forever if we do not act swiftly to protect these remarkable animals and their habitats. In this role, they are not only ambassadors for their own species, but also for entire marine ecosystems and, potentially, for the biosphere as a whole.

Second, scientific understanding of the social and cognitive complexity of some of the species with which we share the planet, including whales and dolphins, is evolving dramatically. Through a miraculous twist of fate, the modern era of environmental uncertainty has coincided with a period of accelerated growth in our understanding of the lives of some of these mysterious ocean dwellers, many of whom have previously evaded our best efforts to assess the more complex details of their existence. Modern techniques and sheer determination from a committed community of cetacean researchers has resulted in the collection of longer-term and more comprehensive datasets. From these we can now interpret new understanding of the lives of our marine mammal cousins and what this means for their conservation and individual welfare.

This new knowledge provides the third element of our argument: our improved understanding of the lives of some of these animals reveals that they have some qualities shared with the primates, including ourselves, and this too arguably demonstrates that we need to pay them special attention.

Whales may also act as vital sentinels for some environmental changes, particularly those associated with ocean acidification and climatic and oceanographic changes. By contrast, some of their smaller coastal-dwelling relatives, whose habitats differ greatly from those in the deep oceans, may also be important indicator species, residing as they typically do at the apex of food-webs in coastal areas where human activities are frequently most intensive.

This volume aims to illuminate some of the secret lives of some of these illusive ocean dwellers, and here we draw together scientific insights and opinions from experts in a variety of fields to present a unique view of whales in the 21st century. Throughout this volume runs the theme of ‘culture’ — how whales and dolphins are viewed in various human cultures and also how unique cultures have been identified in certain groups of whales and dolphins. Understanding more about the biological and social complexity of the lives of cetaceans heralds an increased sense of responsibility for protecting their habitats and ecosystems, as well as protecting these sentient animals as individuals. In light of new research, novel questions can now be posed in scientific terms. For example, how does the removal of a key individual or individuals influence the wellbeing of the rest of the group and can this have an influence on the long-term survival of the population or social subunit?

For many people the conservation ethic often seems to dominate the fact that some nonhuman species can suffer. But the relevance of animal welfare, not just to the suffering of individuals, but also in relation to key conservation questions, is beginning to gain recognition. Conservation and animal welfare both have scientific and ethical components. Science can help identify and quantify problems, and then we make ethical decisions informed by the data that science provides. The multidisciplinary field of animal welfare is now being championed through an initiative led by a number of governments inside the United Nations (UN), where support is being garnered for a Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare (UDAW).¹

CETACEANS AND HUMAN CULTURES

Leading experts in cetacean research have been brought together in this volume to provide authoritative descriptions of investigations into the complex lives of cetaceans. This new information is then considered within the context of how various human cultures view cetaceans and whether new information on issues such as cetacean intelligence, culture and the ability to suffer, warrants a significant shift in global attitudes.

We also describe how the ocean, coastal and estuarine habitats of cetaceans are under threat from a variety of factors and examine the paradox that the iconic status of dolphins and our inherent fascination with these intelligent animals has been the impetus for the development of a global cetacean captivity industry, dedicated to holding these animals captive for our entertainment.

Our journey begins with an overview of human relationships with cetaceans in myth, tradition and law and then moves to a tour through some of the cultures of the Pacific Islands, Latin America, US, Caribbean, UK, Norway and Japan. These chapters compare the cultural values, myths, traditions and history of the relationship of these various peoples with cetaceans and examine how views and attitudes are enshrined in modern domestic policy, politics and legislation. Among the issues considered are, inevitably, our use of whales, which includes not only whaling but also whale watching.

The political entrenchment of certain government policies towards cetacean protection, or cetacean utilization, is also discussed along with the attitudes towards cetaceans in cultures where protection is a key theme, borne out through legislation, but where significant threats still exist from other factors such as fishing and pollution.

WHALES AND SCIENCE

The second part of the book focuses its attention on some of the recent advances in science which provide remarkable insights into the lives of these animals, particularly in relation to cognitive function. A great deal of cunning and patience has been required to unravel some of the mysteries of the lives of cetaceans from often only momentary glimpses at the surface or brief sound recordings.

Most cetacean species, specifically the toothed whales, also predominantly ‘see’ the world through sound; thus there is a challenge inherent for us in understanding an aquatic way of life dominated by sound. The baleen whales do not use echolocation in the same way as the toothed whales, but sound is still of enormous importance to these huge mammals, which have the capacity to communicate over hundreds, perhaps thousands, of kilometres.

However, perhaps one of the greatest challenges to studying cetaceans, beyond the practical difficulties involved in obtaining the relevant data, is interpreting what specific behaviours may mean in terms of an individual’s psychology. Why, for example, do whales regularly and often repeatedly leap clear of the water (a behaviour known as breaching)? Is it sheer exuberance and joy; are they trying to rid themselves of parasites as some suggest; are they stunning fish or other prey; or are they using their entire bodies to communicate a message to other whales and dolphins in the vicinity? Could the answer lie in a mixture of these explanations and be context specific?

In considering cetacean behaviour and intelligence here, we start with a journey into the complex brain structure of dolphins and learn more about dolphins’ ability to ‘recognize themselves’ — a trait associated with self-awareness — and their use of tools. We learn more about the recent and significant discovery of spindle neurons in the brains of certain cetacean species — these neurons were previously believed only to be found in the brains of humans and other primates.

In these chapters, we then explore cetacean communication to provide some useful insights into the possible significance of cetacean vocalizations and other forms of communications. The roles that specific individuals play in a group, or cetacean society, are also discussed in relation to the importance of such research to conservation and welfare issues. For example, are there specific individuals within a cetacean society that are responsible for identifying critical habitat for feeding, or for leading a baleen whale migration? For many of these illusive species these are very difficult questions to answer.

This section includes a contribution from Hal Whitehead, one of the world’s leading authorities on culture in cetacean societies. Growing evidence suggests that some cetacean species can pass information from one generation to the next through a form of cultural transmission or cultural learning. The existence of ‘cultural units’ indicates that the genetic and geographic boundaries that we have traditionally used to define cetacean populations may need to be revaluated and that we need to protect much lower levels of organization than species in order to protect some of these unique cultures, which are, in fact, component parts of the species.

Finally, we explore, more broadly, the nexus between differing human cultural perspectives and the growing body of cetacean research, to ask: what does this mean for the long-term future of cetacean populations and cultures? Whether lauded or vilified by humans, predicting the future for cetaceans in view of increasing threats from climate change, ocean acidification and other industrial activities is an enormous challenge. It is likely that the collapse of certain resources, such as fisheries, may bring even greater pressures to bear on cetacean populations, through prey depletion and, potentially, through hunting as cetaceans become increasingly considered as an alternative protein source, or — more remarkably — as a source for omega oils (and other food supplements) or biofuels.

In the closing chapters of this book, we delve deeper into ethical questions related to appropriate levels of protection for cetaceans, reflecting on the findings of recent research that provide insights on the capacity for these animals to suffer. Where do we draw the line for protection: at the species, population, cultural group or individual level? Does science now demonstrate unequivocally that these animals are sentient, sapient, intelligent beings that are as worthy of individual protection as the great apes?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my co-editor Mark Simmonds for his unending energy and enthusiasm in helping to bring this book together and to specifically thank Chris Butler-Stroud and WDCS for providing the time and space to allow this venture to come to fruition. WSPA and the RSPCA also provided invaluable funding and support for this endeavour.

NOTE

1 Draft text for the UDAW can be viewed at h­t­t­p­:­/­/­s­3­.a­m­a­z­o­n­a­w­s­.c­o­m­/­m­e­d­i­a­.a­n­i­m­a­l­s­m­a­t­t­e­r­.o­r­g­/­f­i­l­e­s­/­r­e­s­o­u­r­c­e­_­f­i­l­e­s­/­o­r­i­g­i­n­a­l­/­e­n­_­d­r­a­f­t­.p­d­f­

Part I

Whales in Human Cultures

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Figure I Solitary bottlenose dolphin, Kent, UK

Source: Terry Whittaker

2

Impressions: Whales and Human Relationships in Myth, Tradition and Law

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Stuart Harrop

INTRODUCTION

The predicament of whales and whaling provides a focus for various distinct perspectives and a battleground for a range of epistemic groups that are shaped by multiple influences: myths, traditions, practices, ethics, laws and frameworks of knowledge. These viewpoints are guarded and reinforced and provide the basis for validation of each group’s political stance within the IWC and other regulatory forums dealing with the predicament of whales. In this chapter samples of these perspectives are examined as they relate particularly to controversial aspects of polar whaling, where a battle has been fought for some years now, albeit with sporadic skirmishes rather than constant fighting. A key area for conflict is the granting by the IWC of aboriginal subsistence exemptions for whaling. Specific questions may be extracted from the political haze that beleaguers whaling politics. These include the need to define the meaning of ‘aboriginal’ in the context of the loss of traditions and the developmental transitions of indigenous people and the need to determine the extent to which traditional whaling may cross over from the status of ‘subsistence’ to ‘commercial’. By examining aspects of the root perspectives and influences that relate to these questions it is hoped that some meaning may be discerned that may contribute to shortening the long days spent debating the fate of the great whales that are the subject of aboriginal subsistence quotas.

WHALE ORIGINS

Instinctively human communities may have elevated the whales above the fish because of our mammalian proximity and embodied this relationship within their legends and mythology. Similarly, and perhaps ironically, given the recent history of our treatment of whales, contemporary repositories of culture, such as Hollywood blockbusters, often impute whales with the ability t...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Figure
• Foreword
• Acknowledgements
• List of Contributors
• List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
• 1 Why Whales, Why Now?
• Part 1 Whales in Human Cultures
• Part II The Nature of Whales and Dolphins
• Part III New Insights — New Challenges
• Index