Sexuality and Gender in the English Renaissance

An Annotated Edition of Contemporary Documents

Lloyd Davis

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9780815324522
• eBook ISBN: 9781317945086
• Topic: Literature
• Subtopic: Literary Criticism
• Index: Literature

First published in 1998. This anthology coomprises a diverse range of historical treatises and tracts that discuss and debate gender and sexual relations in early modern England. Combining complete texts and extracts-many hitherto unavailable in modern editions-the collection focuses on prevailing conceptions of sexuality and gender in major areas and institutions of Tudor and Stuart society. A broad selection of religious sermons, moral handbooks, household manuals, midwifery and legal textbooks, ballads and chapbooks has been chosen.

Marriage and Household Manuals

Chapter 8

The Order of Household

Described Methodically out of the Word of God, with the Contrary Abuses Found in the World

Dudley Fenner

Written at the end of the English Renaissance, in many ways Milton’s Paradise Lost sums up numerous opinions and beliefs of preceding years. None is conveyed so vividly as the range of attitudes on marriage, with the poem appearing in some lights as a “transcendent conduct book,” celebrating “the apotheosis of ‘conjugal love’” (Collinson, Birthpangs 69). Milton presents many facets of the marriage relation in pre- and postlapsarian conditions, but apart from intimations of Eve’s resistance to Adam’s governance prior to her wandering from him in Book 9, she is consistently depicted as his subordinate. In early books she seems to embrace this position: “My author and disposer, what thou bidd’st / Unargued I obey; so God ordains. / God is thy law, thou mine; to know more / Is woman’s happiest knowledge and her praise” (4:635-38). Later, her submission is first enjoined, “Lament not, Eve, but patiently resign / What justly thou has lost. . .with thee goes / Thy husband, him to follow thou art bound” (11: 286-91), and then somberly accepted, “But now lead on. . .thou to me / Art all things under heav’n, all places thou” (12:614-18). In short, Milton depicts the mythical emergence of views on marriage that prevailed in the many conduct books and household manuals that were published in the 1500s and 1600s.

In the early-sixteenth century, figures such as Erasmus, Martin Luther, and Juan Luis Vives authored various texts on family and gender relations which emphasized the importance of the family under paternal authority, thereby setting aside the medieval “scholastics’ grudging justification of marriage as a cure for concupiscence. . .and lay[ing] greater emphasis on its comfort and companionship” (Maclean 19). Their work set precedents and patterns for many of the later English texts (O’Day 39-41), which were also influenced by Reformation treatises such as The Christian State of Matrimony, by the Swiss Reformer Heinrich Bullinger. It is not surprising, then, that many of the manuals were written by Puritan preachers who sought to demonstrate their learning and their religious and moral virtue through constant reference to the Bible and, to a lesser degree, classical authors. Citing such authoritative sources was the accepted logical and rhetorical method of developing the body of an argument. It granted the author’s persona, as well as the text, intellectual, ethical, and spiritual substance.

Dudley Fenner’s Order of Household illustrates many of these features. Fenner, a Puritan clergyman, was born in 1558 and died in 1587. His short life was quite controversial, as staunch convictions placed him in conflict with Elizabethan church and political authorities on a number of occasions. Due to his reputation as a Puritan preacher, he was forced to leave Cambridge University before completing his degree. He moved to Holland and was there ordained into the Reformist ministry. In the early 1580s he returned to England but was soon embroiled in a religious controversy. Along with sixteen other ministers from Kent, Fenner refused to accept three new articles of religious conformity introduced by Archbishop Whitgift in 1583. He was interrogated and imprisoned for a few months in 1584, before subscribing to the new articles. After being released from prison he took charge of a Puritan church in Middleburgh in Holland, dying there in 1587.

Fenner is credited with being one of the originators of English Puritan theology (Collinson, Godly People 293). He wrote a number of works which explained reformist beliefs and attacked opposing views. He also published some texts on other topics, including A Short and Profitable Treatise of Lawful and Unlawful Recreations (1587), and The Arts of Logic and Rhetoric (1584), the first English translation of the French philosopher Peter Ramus’s logical method, which proposed analyzing any subject by using dichotomies or opposites to move from general to particular cases. Fenner’s philosophical interests supplemented rather than contradicted his religious beliefs, for he contended that “method” was prescribed by God (Ong 74). The translation of Ramus was initially published together with The Order of Household. The analytical approach of binary definitions is employed throughout the latter, and the influence of Ramism sounds in Fenner’s use of words such as “order” and “methodically” in the title and subtitle.

Fenner married and had four children. He was one of the introducers of the fundamentalist practice of baptizing children with “peculiar names” having godly significance (Collinson, Godly People 423). His own children were named Freegift, Morefruit, Faintnot, and Wellabroad. The Order of Household endorses this practice, but overall it does not have a strongly personal tone. Its views are traditional, based on repeated reference to the Old and New Testaments. One of the distinctive features of The Order is its use of the Bible as a definitive source of authority. The gospels provide powerful evidence and instruction on all aspects of contemporary family life. Fenner’s approach suggests a timeless conception of the family, with relationships between husband and wife, parents and children, master and servants reproducing biblical ideals.

A second distinctive feature of the text is, as noted earlier, Fenner’s attempt to divide and order all aspects of family life into significant parts, which can be defined and explained. While this feature derives from his interest in Ramism, it also represents an important contrast to conduct and marriage books written earlier in the sixteenth century. Such works as those of Erasmus and Vives used numerous images to portray rather than define the qualities of marriage and gender. Fenner’s dialectical method aims to limit the meanings of these qualities, and effectively introduces a “sexual division of behavior and labor” in its “representations of ordered family life” (Newman 25).

At times Fenner appears to quote the Bible from memory, and occasional errors in citation or typesetting have been corrected. The Order is also filled with many direct biblical quotations. Where a quotation is incorporated into Fenner’s own sentences, it has been retained in the text; where the quotation functions as an illustration of a point Fenner is making and is entirely freestanding, it has not been included though the citation is. Occasionally, short quotations are used to introduce new sections of the text, and these too have been retained.

The Order of Household was republished posthumously in a 1592 collection of Certain Godly and Learned Treatises, testifying to the popularity of Fenner’s work at least in parts of Britain (the place of publication was Edinburgh). The version below is based on the first edition of 1584 which was published in Middleburgh (STC 10769; Reel 224).

The Order of Household

The order of a household called Oiconomia is an order for the government of the matters of a household, according to the word of God: “which governeth his house well and excellently” (1 Tim. 3.4); and “I will walk in the perfect way, in the uprightness of my soul in the midst of my house” (Ps. 101.2). Which declareth there is a perfect way which cometh from God only, as all perfection doth, wherein is required the uprightness of one’s soul, and whereof he setteth down some part afterward: “By wisdom the house is built, and established by understanding, and by knowledge the rooms shall be filled with all precious and pleasant substance” (Prov. 23.34).

Now the wisdom meant in this book is that which is allowed of God’s word, especially when he joineth such blessing unto it.

The household order hath two parts: the first of these which concern the governors of the family; the second of those which are governed in the same.

“If one care not for his own, especially those of his house” (1 Tim. 5.8), which showeth an especial rule of mutual duty between these two. Also, the wisdom of the holy Ghost in setting down mutual duties unto them (Prov. 31, Eph. 6.2-6, Col. 3.18-24).

Those which govern the family are those superiors who have authority in the same. Their general and common duty is to order their house according to the former rule. Yet one may (being urged by the great care of Magistracy or for such like) have a steward, that is, one to govern his household according to the rules he prescribeth. Contrary to this is the common and whole casting off of this care, unless in worldly matters. The first part of this rule is proved by these places: “I will have the younger women to marry, and govern their household” (1 Tim. 5.14); “If one rule not his household well how shall he care for the church?” (1 Tim. 3.5); the examples of David (Ps. 101.4-7), and Solomon’s mother (Prov. 31).¹

The second part of this rule is proved by the example of Abraham who had his elder servant in his house, who was over all that he had, and to whom he committed the weighty duty of providing a wife for his son (Gen. 24.2-4). So Joseph in Potiphar’s house.²

This government must be performed with all comeliness fit for the household, which is that agreeable fitness or convenience which worthily becometh the diversity of persons in the family, as superiors, inferiors, equals; of sex, male, female; of age, childhood, youth, ripe age, old years; of matters, as some concerning God, some man; of time, the day, the night. For all these have not one and the same Rule of decency. Therefore the Apostle saith: “Which ruleth his house which keepeth his children in subjection, with all comeliness” (1 Tim. 3.4). Now as there is comeliness peculiar to the subjection of children, so of servants. And as there is comeliness for subjection, so for equality. And as for behavior of those of the house, so to those not of the house, and so likewise in all other the former respects, as shall appear by the shining light or eye of this general rule in every part of household government.

Of the duties of ordering the household by the chief of the same, there are two sorts: the first regardeth those in the household; the other, strangers or guests coming into the same.

“If she have brought up her children well, if she have been given to hospitality” (1 Tim. 5.10). “If the men of my tent have not said: O that some would give us of this flesh: we are not satisfied, because the stranger did not lodge abroad, I opened my doors to the wayfaring man” (Job 31.3132). So he caused servants to give place to strangers, which showeth this diversity of duties.

Now both of these are in regard of: Christian holiness; the things of this life.

“She openeth her mouth in wisdom, and the doctrine of mercy is on her tongue. And rising while it is yet night, she giveth meat to her house, and a task to her maids” (Prov. 31.26 and 15). And in Exodus 18.5-18.³

And this ariseth from a double respect: the commodity they receive, and the duty they owe to the common state wherein they are. That as they have of their children, servants, guests, not only bodily service and friendship, but that which is of conscience and cometh from their faith and religion and their prayer and the blessing in them (Matt. 10.41), so they must give them this double recompense.

Also to the common state they are bound by covenant, not only as much as in them lieth by their household government to further the peace and tranquillity of the commonwealth, but also of religion and true holiness (2 Kings 11.17). Contrary to this is their best care to be most exquisite in the latter and wholly negligent in the former, which is the chiefest. So that their administration of household matters is altogether civil not religious.

For the family, the duty which regardeth them is to keep them in subjection, for the performance of all duties of holiness and religion, and for the diligent performance of works and labors which are fit for everyone (1 Tim. 3.4, Tit. 1.6, Ps. 101.1-8).

Now for the performance of this general duty, two sorts are required, which are: such as where they must commonly go before them and direct them; such as they must perform unto them.

Gen. 35.2-4, where we see that Jacob doth both instruct them what to do and in the doing of these things directeth them.

Such as wherein they must only go before them and direct them are those which only ought to be done jointly of the whole family, and then the superiors must be there the chief directors of them. Otherwise when they are absent they must cause them to be done, as in prayer before and after their labor, in thanksgiving before and after meals (Jas. 5.13, Ps. 127.1-2, Ps. 55.18, 1 Tim. 4.4, Luke 22.17, Gen. 24.12 and 48, Est. 4.16, Neh. 1.4-6). For as it is their duty in their own private fast to do this by themselves, so to direct others in the same when they do it with them. Contrary to this is the unchristian profaneness in such cases, also the unchristian shamefastness⁴ of some and common negligence in others in these duties.

Such as they must perform unto them are duties: of instruction; reforming.⁵

“He which keepeth back his rod, hateth his son, but he which loveth him, doeth give him instructions betimes” (Prov. 13.24). “He which withdraweth himself from instruction, despiseth his soul: but he that hearkeneth unto rebuke, possesseth his soul” (Prov. 15.32).

The duties of instruction are that by a familiar and most plain manner of teaching, they may grow in the knowledge of that truth which is according to godliness (Gen. 18.19, Gen. 14.14, Deut. 20.21).

They are for: continual daily instruction; that which respecteth the public ministry.⁶

Duties for daily instruction are: instruction out of the Scriptures; instruction drawn from God’s works.⁷

Instruction out of the Scripture is by the daily reading of the same with them, both to make them acquainted with the course of them, so that they may mark the same for their better profiting, by the allegations⁸ of the public ministry, and also to refer those things which are plain and easy or which they have learnt from the public ministry unto such plain instruction as, they instructed, may understand and know how to bring it in use. “Thou hast known the Scriptures from a child” (2 Tim. 3.15), which cannot be spoken of a through knowledge,⁹ no, nor such as belongeth to the old men who should be sound in faith, much less such as belongeth to a Minister. But such as this, in being made acquainted with it and caused to mark, as he was able, the course of it, and to learn for use and practice, such as his parents were able to note unto him, and he fit to receive by daily practice (Deut. 6.6-9).

Contrary to this is, first, that they are utterly negligent and ignorant how they should do this. Then, that some presume above this rule and go beyond their calling, and especially that their household is not trained by this means, nor made fit for the public ministry and to amend their lives by such Christian exercises.

Instruction drawn from God’s works is by applying the works of God, past or present, to move them the better to confidence and truth in God, by works of his mercy; to fear to offend God, by works of his justice; and so to sow the very seed of true religion and good conscience in them (Gen. 18.19).

The duty which respecteth the public ministry [is] Double: first, concerning the obtaining of it; the second, concerning the use of it.

First, concerning the obtaining of it, they must (if it be possible) in their place and calling adjoin them to a set ministry, if not, to bestow at least the Sabbath days, yea, other also, in seeking to the Ministers and prophets of God to hear the word of God. This is manifest, first, because we must first seek the kingdom of GOD, whereof this is a part: “Behold a King shall rule justly, and excellent ones shall govern according to the rule, the eyes of them who see shall not wink, but the ears of them who hear, shall hearken: the mind of the hasty shall understand knowledge, and the tongue of the stutterer, shall readily speak shining things” (Isa. 32.1-4).¹⁰ Secondly, it is the ordinary means to beget and nourish faith to us: “How can they believe except they hear: how can they hear without a Preacher: how can he preach without he be sent?” (Rom. 10.14-15).¹¹

[Thirdly], because it is the greatest blessing to have it and the greatest plague to want it. Jeremiah 23, having threatened them that they feed not the people, he saith after, “I will gather the rest of my sheep but of all the land whither I had driven them, and I will bring them back unto their sheepcotes, where they shall multiply and increase, and I will set over them Pasters, which shall feed them: so that they ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction
• Sermons and Homilies
• Moral and Religious Tracts
• Marriage and Household Manuals
• Midwifery
• Ballads and Chapbooks
• Witchcraft
• Law
• Works Cited
• Index