Deviant Behaviour

Readings In The Sociology Of Norm Violations

Clifton D. Bryant

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN:
  9780891167792
• eBook ISBN:
  9781317770534
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Mental Health in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

A comprehensive set of readings examining the full range of concerns in the field of deviant behaviour. All the selections are relatively recent and have not appeared in other anthologies.

Part One

Introducing Deviance

Chapter One

The Social Context

EDITORIAL COMMENTARY

All living creatures live according to “rules” and “laws.” The simpler animals behave in accordance with “laws” created and enforced by nature. Their compliance is constituent to their biological nature. They are physiologically “programmed,” as it were. Fish, for example, often move in tremendous groupings known as “schools.” As they swim in these schools, they move and turn, seemingly in almost perfect unison with every dart and dive synchronized simultaneously among all who make up the school. Compliance with the “traffic rules” is accomplished by means of ultra sensitivity to water pressure and electrochemical signals among the fish, and their programmed biological response.

The animals higher on the phylogenic ladder, such as the mammals, are also genetically programmed to respond to the laws of nature but they have somewhat more behavioral latitude in how they carry out the biological mandates. The exercise of “territoriality,” for instance, is characteristic of many species of fish, birds, and animals. In effect, the creatures must compete for a certain amount of space and territory if they and their offspring are to survive. Among mammals (and other species as well) it’s the male that defends the area and his mate. This competition for real estate is a survival mechanism, and the territorial instinct and sexual appetite are “profoundly intermeshed” as some writers (Audrey, 1966) have pointed out. In many species, the female is unresponsive to an “unpropertied” male (Audrey, 1966:3). Nature, thus, discourages the reproduction of offspring where there are not sufficient resources to sustain them. Within the framework of this natural instinct the individual animals may sometimes exercise this territorial imperative in a somewhat idiosyncratic fashion. They may be more or less aggressive than other similar animals of the same species in defending their territory and herein lies the mechanism of “selection of the fittest.” There are also non-biological dimensions to such behavior in that one wire-haired terrier may be ferociously aggressive in defending his “turf” – his owner’s yard and surroundings – while another may be almost passive. The ways in which the respective dogs are raised, their relationship with their owner, and other “social” factors, in addition to differential hormonal considerations, may impact on their behavior. The higher animals, then, may behave somewhat differently on an individual basis in complying with the rules of nature.

Humans, like other animals, also have some biological programming, but much more limited in extent. They experience physiological disequilibrium in the form of the hunger drive and the sex drive, to mention some biological imperatives. How they respond to these biological mandates is socially determined. Everyone becomes hungry, but how, what, and when this hunger is assuaged, is usually a function of the society in which one lives, the culture of that society, and the social beliefs and rules of eating and nutrition that are component to the culture.

HUMANS AND THE SOCIAL ORDER

Beyond the biological drives, and the responses to these drives that are socially shaped, humans have the need to coordinate their behavior if they are to successfully live together in a social group. To this end, they effect rules – or norms of behavior. This can be simply demonstrated by an attempt of two (or more) individuals to occupy a small, potentially unstable boat. They must immediately determine which part of the boat each is to occupy and agree on that placement. Beyond this, they must establish precautionary measures such as not leaning out too far beyond the boat, and certainly not both (or all) doing so at the same time (so as not to capsize), as well as procedures for propelling the boat, such as who will steer, who will row, who will row on one side and who will row on the other, etc. Failure to perfect rules to accomplish these things may well cause the boat to sink, or at least sit still in the water with no purposive direction. In this instance, then, to be successful in sharing the boat and making it go somewhere, there must be rules and agreement to abide by the rules (and, of course, compliance).

Other more complicated social situations require a more complex set of rules. Two or more individuals attempting to live together in a room or an apartment have to quickly establish rules. Who lives in which bedroom? Who sleeps in which bed? At what time is it necessary to turn down the volume of the radio or television at night in order that the other(s) may go to sleep? How are the rent, utilities, food costs, and other expenses to be shared? Who cooks, who washes dishes, who cleans up, and when, how often, etc., etc., etc.? Rules concerning the bathroom may be especially important because of differential time schedules of the occupants. One person may have to leave for work earlier. Here again, to successfully share the apartment, the occupants will have to establish rules, and then agree to abide by the rules (and, of course, comply with the rules).

Where a group of individuals is shipwrecked, and then marooned on a desert island, there will obviously be a need for a prompt institution of a relatively complex set of rules if the group is, indeed, going to enjoy any prospect of survival. The complex rules will probably include a division of labor, some form of group decision making and a means of enforcing those decisions, and the development of a collective goal supported by all. There will also be a need for establishment of appropriate proscriptions and prescriptions for the more routine day-to-day activities as well as guidelines for interpersonal interaction. Only in this way could the group accomplish to provide for the needs of its members and either survive until rescued, or until a means of escape could be devised, constructed and implemented.

In all of these examples, the boat “crew,” the roommates, or the castaway group, what would be needed is a preordained organization of behavior – “a social order.” Societies, small or large, have the same need or problem. In order to exist and endure – to survive – a social order must be established and enforced.

THE ORIGIN OF A SOCIAL ORDER

A social order, in the form of a set or system of rules or social norms comes about in various ways. Laws and rules may be instituted or declared by fiat on the part of some hereditary rules, king, or chieftain (i.e., “the divine right of kings”) or by a charismatic leader, on the basis of being omniscient as well as omnipotent. They may also be issued by persons occupying positions of high hierarchical status on the basis of the authority vested in the position, (“standing” orders or procedures, or “orders of the day” as issued by the Captain of a ship, or the Commanding General of a military base), or their assumed technical expertise (some regulation promulgated by the Director of some federal agency or bureau). Laws, rules, or instructions can even emanate from entities in other worlds – deities, the dead, spirits, or supernatural force, to mention but some. Enactments based on pronouncements, messages, or signs from such entities, of course, need an agent, intermediary, or emissary, such as a religious leader, who has “divine guidance,” (a Pope, for example), a medium through whom the dead speak, a witch doctor, oracle, soothsayer, or diviner, who can interpret signs and unnatural events. Moses received the golden tablets directly from God and transported them back down the mountain to instruct the Israelites. Joseph Smith accomplished much the same when he dictated the Book of Mormon directly from the golden plates. Medicine men or witch doctors may have visions that serve as communications from the gods or the dead. Oracles may interpret storms, or earthquakes, or the eruptions of volcanoes as particular mandates of deities or supernatural forces for specific behavioral responses on the part of humans.

Laws and rules may also come from less divine or regal sources. Behavioral instructions in the forms of legislation, statutes, or ordinances, may be issued by a tribal council of elders, a board of aldermen, a school board, a group of city commissioners, a church synod, board of elders, or a regulatory agency. They may emanate from more of a “grassroots” level social entity such as a town meeting of citizens, the vote of a church congregation, a national plebiscite on some issue, a student body referendum, a union balloting, the showing of hands at a neighborhood association meeting, or simply, the consensus of the members of a 2-table bridge group, a small bird-watcher’s club, or a slum street gang.

All such rules – be they by-laws, directives, ordinances, laws, codes, or regulations – serve to guide and direct some aspect of social behavior. In effect, they proscribe (prohibit) or prescribe (advocate) certain conduct, and also circumscribe and dictate the circumstances, conditions, contingencies, and contexts of such conduct. The rules are usually linked to some attendant sanctions – punishments and/or rewards to motivate compliance. In a society (or even on a smaller scale such as a community) there are many entities that issue or promulgate rules. Denominational bodies and local churches formulate rules regarding both religious behavior and religious thought in the form of theology (Catholics, for example, are expected to participate in the Sacrament of Reconciliation at regular intervals, and must believe in the Immaculate Conception and the Holy Trinity, as items of faith). States legally require that children attend school until a particular age, school boards issue directives concerning educational policy, and local school administrations create day-to-day rules for the conduct of classes, and the behavior of students. The U.S. government, through its Department of Labor, has developed a complex set of safety rules for the work place, which are administered and monitored by its subsidiary Occupational Health and Safety Administration. Most counties have a health board or health agency which institutes health rules for persons involved in food preparation (appropriate medical tests for cooks, for example), and standards of cleanliness and sanitation for establishments that serve food (periodic checks for insects, rodents, unsanitary conditions in the kitchen, etc.). States, counties, or cities may have fire codes which specify standards of safety in regard to fire hazards, and “Fire Marshalls” to enforce them. Contractors, carpenters, plumbers, and electricians, to name but some craftsmen, are subject to a wide variety of building codes in the construction of a house, or the installation of electrical wiring, appliances, plumbing fixtures, or additions or modifications to an existing structure. The use of certain types of wiring, pipes, electrical outlets, or building materials may be required for safety and aesthetic reasons. Individuals are subject to rules when they drive their automobile (traffic laws and ordinances), are usually required to carry liability insurance on their automobiles, and are subject to a number of rules and requirements in acquiring and using a driver’s license. The Federal Aeronautics Administration lays down numerous rules and regulations in regard to qualifying for a pilot’s license, the maintenance of airplanes, and the process of flying on an airplane itself. The Federal Communications Commission regulates the acquisition of a license to operate a shortwave radio, and the operation of a radio or television station as well. Farmers, ranchers, and dairymen are all subject to rules and controls imposed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in connection with raising crops, livestock, and producing milk. Food processors are similarly regulated and controlled. Persons who hunt and fish for sport, or fish and gather shellfish commercially are subject to a number of rules (game and fish laws). The conduct of recreation and sport is subject to many rules, ranging from boating (Coast Guard or various state safety and boating regulations) to playing board games (all played according to historical and traditional rules), to organized sports (which are played not only according to traditional rules, but also governed by league, and conference rules).

Marriage, the family, and the behavior of members of the family are all subject to social rules that include state control of requirements for obtaining a license to marry, the specification of conditions for the dissolution of marriage (divorce laws) to the control of the behavior of husband and wife in a marriage (domestic relations laws). The list of formal rules impinging on social behavior is almost endless and could go on for volumes. Beyond the formal rules are the vast array of informal rules that operate within all sorts of formal and informal groups and settings, and the variety of societal values and attitudes that specify a preference for a particular kind of thought, action, or feeling. According to prevailing societal values, one should feel patriotic when the flag passes by, or sad when it is learned that a relative has died. It is better to be honest rather than be dishonest, truthful rather than tell a falsehood, and to be altruistic rather than to be selfish. It may be customary for a group of factory workers to stop at a particular bar close to the factory when they get off work and to have a few beers. The worker who might have another preference for place or activity would find himself under considerable pressure to “follow the crowd.” The individual discovers that he or she is subject to informal rules that exist within the family, among neighbors, within the church congregation, between friends, among office workers, fellow students, or military servicemen in the same unit, or among fellow participants in a wide variety of leisure activities, to name but some.

In short, the individual lives in a world of rules – a veritable “jungle” of rules – as it were, all supported by sanctions of one kind or another to motivate compliance with the rules. Most rules are assumed to specify behavior that is correct, appropriate, timely, and desirable and, thus, that which is “normal.” The rules of normality are, then, what people ought to or should be doing. From these assumptions is derived the term “norm” to generically encompass all of the rules, regulations, laws, statutes, ordinances, and preferences discussed above. The term “norm” would seem to suggest a modal frequency or form of behavior but such is not the case. The social “norms” are ideal statements of specified behavior but, in reality, in many instances only a minority of the members of a society may conform to many norms. Nevertheless, because it is felt that the norms proscribe or prescribe that which is socially desirable (even at an ideal level), the norms are theoretically enforced even if only a small percentage of the public is inclined to so behave. The multitude of norms in a society, plus the attendant motivational mechanisms for compliance, then make up “social order.”

THE FORMS OF NORMS AND THE MORAL ORDER

Social norms vary greatly in terms of the types of behavior that they are designed to govern or control. At the level of least social consequence are the norms pertaining to relatively mundane and regular, everyday, conduct. These norms are known as folkways (Sumner, 1906). Folkways are rules governing behavior of no great social import or consequences. Such behavior is often grouped into subsystems with distinctive names or labels. Included in such behavior might be the norms pertaining to eating (table manners), the norms governing language usage (correct grammar), or the norms governing appropriate interactional behavior (manners or the “social graces”). We speak of being considerate of others in our interaction such as saying “thanks,” or “excuse me,” or “I’m pleased to meet you,” etc. as politeness or civility. Chivalry refers to the norms of solicitous and helpful behavior toward women, children, and the elderly. Etiquette encompasses the norms such as sending “thank you” notes to acknowledg...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• Part 1 Introducing Deviance
• Part 2 Deviance: Conceptions and Perceptions
• Part 3 Deviance: Cultural Patterns
• Part 4 Deviance as Behavior
• Part 5 Deviance: Exits and Transformations
• Part 6 The Future of Deviance: Prospects and Prognosis
• Subject Index
• Name Index