The Routledge Handbook of Media Use and Well-Being

International Perspectives on Theory and Research on Positive Media Effects

Leonard Reinecke, Mary Beth Oliver, Leonard Reinecke, Mary Beth Oliver

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9780367736996
• eBook ISBN: 9781317501947
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Communication Studies
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

The Routledge Handbook of Media Use and Well-Being serves as the first international review of the current state of this fast-developing area of research. The volume provides a multifaceted perspective on the beneficial as well as the detrimental effects of media exposure on psychological health and well-being. As a "first-mover," it will define the field of media use and well-being and provide an essential resource for research and teaching in this area.

The volume is structured along four central considerations:

• Processes presents concepts that provide a theoretical bridge between media use and well-being, such as psychological need satisfaction, recovery from stress and strain, self-presentation and self-enhancement, or parasocial interactions with media characters, providing a comprehensive understanding of the underlying processes that drive psychological health and well-being through media.
• Moderators examines both risk factors that promote negative effects on well-being and protective factors that foster positive media effects.
• Contexts bridges the gap between theory and "real life" by illustrating how media use can influence well-being and satisfaction in very different life domains, covering the full spectrum of everyday life by addressing the public, private, and work spheres.
• Audiences takes a look at the influence of life phases and life situations on the interplay of media use and well-being, questioning whether various user groups differ with regard to the effects of media exposure.

Bringing together the expertise of outstanding international scholars from multiple disciplines, including communication, media psychology, social psychology, clinical psychology, and media education, this handbook sheds new light on the role of media in influencing and affecting emotions.

PART I

Introduction

What Is Well-Being?

1

MEDIA USE AND WELL-BEING

Status Quo and Open Questions

Leonard Reinecke and Mary Beth Oliver

New and converging media have become an integral part of our daily lives. The Internet and social media in particular have changed the way we communicate and network with family, friends, and acquaintances. Digital games and interactive entertainment have emerged into mainstream media, attracting an ever-growing audience of young and older users alike. Mobile media have extended the scope of traditional mass media, and make information, entertainment, and computer-mediated interpersonal communication available at any time and at any place.

While the fast-growing influence of media on our lives is hard to overlook, many of the consequences of this ubiquitous media exposure remain an open question. Concerns about the effects of media use on users’ well-being have been a significant driver of research since the early days of communication research and media psychology: Early research has addressed media use as an escape from the restrictions and frustrations of everyday life (Katz & Foulkes, 1962) or – more recently – as a powerful tool for the regulation of mood and arousal (Zillmann, 1988). Traditionally, however, our discipline has paid more attention to the negative and unintended effects of media use. Most prominently, this preoccupation with negative media effects is represented in the tradition of media violence research, which has produced hundreds of studies and an abundance of empirical findings over recent decades (e.g., Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Anderson et al., 2010). Other potentially detrimental media effects, such as the effects of pornography on sexual aggression or sexual stereotypes (e.g., Peter & Valkenburg, 2011; Zillmann & Bryant, 1982) or the influence of problematic body ideals transmitted in the media (e.g., Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008) are other examples of traditional fields of media effects research that address the “downsides” of media exposure.

Whereas there can be no doubt that a systematic understanding of the risks of media use (and of potential countermeasures) is of crucial societal relevance and a central challenge to our discipline, we believe that a holistic view of media uses and effects must also include the potential benefits of media use. The effects of media use on psychological well-being appear to be of utmost importance in this context: Given the fact that so many people around the globe spend remarkable amounts of their leisure time with media content, what implications does this have for their psychological and physical health? Does media use make us happier, enrich our daily lives, and provide new opportunities for personal growth, or does it reduce or replace sources of well-being in our lives and represent a burden rather than a resource?

Media researchers have only recently started to explore systematically the potential positive effects of media use on psychological well-being. This innovative branch of research has revealed numerous connections between media exposure and well-being that have largely been ignored before. A growing body of studies demonstrates that media entertainment can fulfill crucial intrinsic needs such as the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006; Tamborini et al., 2011). Media use provides relief from stress and daily hassles and can facilitate recovery after a long working day (Reinecke, Klatt, & Krämer, 2011). Sad or contemplative media fare can remind us of moral virtues and the purpose of life and lead to experiences of “meaningful entertainment” (Oliver & Bartsch, 2010; Wirth, Hofer, & Schramm, 2012). Social media generate connections and enable their users to maintain and expand their social resources and to gain social support (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Trepte, Dienlin, & Reinecke, 2015).

Despite the growing number of studies that point to the positive potential of media use, the empirical evidence is far from being unanimous. Results suggesting a positive effect of media use on well-being contrast with other lines of research that draw a concisely different picture and demonstrate negative connections between media exposure and well-being in the daily lives of users (e.g., Turkle, 2011). Relief from stress and strain, feelings of appreciation and meaningfulness, and the satisfaction of intrinsic needs may quickly vanish after media exposure, leaving a feeling of guilt and wasted time (Reinecke, Hartmann, & Eden, 2014). Daily “screen time” may displace other activities essential for well-being, such as sports or social activities, and foster loneliness, obesity, and physical complaints (Marshall, Biddle, Gorely, Cameron, & Murdey, 2004; Vandelanotte, Sugiyama, Gardiner, & Owen, 2009). Private information disclosed on Twitter or Facebook may reach unintended audiences and cause conflicts with family, friends, and employers (Vitak, 2012).

Gaining a better understanding of the complex interaction of media use and well-being poses a crucial challenge to communication research and media psychology as well as to our society as a whole. The goal of the Handbook of Media Use and Well-Being is to compose the first international review of the status quo of this fast-developing field of research. The book provides a multifaceted perspective on the beneficial as well as the detrimental effects of media exposure on psychological health and well-being. This short introductory chapter is intended to provide an overview of the scope of the volume and the topics and processes addressed in the different chapters. After a short discussion of the theoretical construct of psychological well-being, we will introduce the main sections of the volume. The chapter ends with a summary of the status quo of research on media use and well-being and the discussion of future challenges for the field.

Well-Being: Two Schools of Thought

The processes that drive happiness and satisfaction with life have received considerable attention in the field of psychology over the last four decades. Since the advent of “positive psychology” that has resulted in a shift from the traditional focus of clinical psychology on pathology to a stronger emphasis on positive experiences and the potentials of the individual (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), the concept of well-being has played a prominent role in psychological research. The current research is dominated by two central theoretical concepts or “schools” of well-being (Huta & Waterman, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2001): hedonic and eudaimonic approaches to well-being.

The hedonic well-being concept is largely influenced by the works of Ed Diener and his colleagues (e.g., Diener, 2000; Diener & Ryan, 2009) and defines well-being – which is usually referred to as “subjective well-being” in this research tradition (e.g., Diener, 1984, p. 542) – in terms of hedonic happiness and a favorable evaluation of life circumstances. Accordingly, Diener (1984; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999) identifies three main components of subjective well-being: the presence of positive affect, the absence of negative affect, and a positive cognitive judgment of living conditions (satisfaction with life). The hedonic research tradition has produced numerous studies over the last three decades and has identified various predictors of subjective well-being, among them relationship and occupational status, income, and education, as well as the political and socio-economic situation in the country of residence of the individual (Diener & Ryan, 2009)

Whereas well-being is primarily defined in terms of pleasurable experiences in the hedonic research tradition, scholars in the field of eudaimonic well-being research have proposed a broader theoretical explication of well-being. According to the eudaimonic perspective, well-being – usually referred to as “psychological well-being” (e.g., Ryff & Keyes, 1995, p. 719) – extends well beyond mere hedonic happiness and includes more complex components of well-being such as psychological growth and the realization of human potential (Huta & Waterman, 2014). The eudaimonic perspective thus crucially extends the well-being concept and introduces new components and drivers of well-being. One particularly prominent theoretical approach within the field of eudaimonic well-being research is Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), which proposes that the satisfaction of the intrinsic need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are crucial determinants of psychological well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Other eudaimonic approaches have introduced additional facets of psychological well-being such as self-realization, authenticity, moral virtues, or purpose in life (Huta & Waterman, 2014; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).

Explicating the theoretical concept of well-being in its full complexity goes far beyond the scope of this chapter. However, the two remaining chapters in this introductory section of the handbook provide a comprehensive review of the hedonic and eudaimonic well-being concept and a first exploration of the potential relationships between media use and well-being. Chapter 2, by Veronika Huta, provides an excellent introduction to well-being research as well as a valuable overview of the many facets of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, and presents an inspiring point of departure for future research on media use and well-being. Chapter 3, by Scott Rigby and Richard Ryan, focuses on Self-Determination Theory and the satisfaction of intrinsic needs. The concepts of intrinsic motivation and self-determination have strongly influenced research on the appeal and effects of entertaining media in general and of interactive media in particular (Reinecke, Vorderer, & Knop, 2014; Ryan et al., 2006). Rigby and Ryan introduce the basic assumptions of Self-Determination Theory and systematically analyze the potential of media use as a source of self-determination. In combination, both chapters provide a thorough introduction to well-being research and illuminate the complexity of research on media use and well-being. The multidimensionality of the well-being concept and the heterogeneity of theory and research in this context make the exploration of the reciprocal relationship between well-being and media use a challenging yet highly promising endeavor for researchers in media psychology and communication research.

Processes: Psychological Mechanisms Connecting Media Use and Well-Being

Building upon the well-being concepts introduced in the first section of the handbook, the chapters in the second section of the volume address a number of concepts that provide a theoretical bridge between media use and well-being. It is neither by chance nor due to the editors’ personal research interests or their idiosyncratic perspective on our discipline that many of the chapters in this section focus on concepts and variables that have traditionally been the focus of entertainment research. Rather, the theoretical developments in well-being research outlined above have critically influenced the research in media entertainment in the last few years: Traditional theoretical conceptualizations of media entertainment as a pleasurable affective state elicited by media use (Bosshart & Macconi, 1998; Vorderer, Klimmt, & Ritterfeld, 2004) strongly correspond with the concept of hedonic well-being. More recently, however, entertainment research has seen a paradigmatic shift and the introduction of two-factor models of entertainment that complement the notion of hedonic enjoyment with more complex forms of entertainment experience and appreciation (Vorderer & Reinecke, 2015). These more comprehensive definitions of media entertainment integrate factors, such as feelings of meaningfulness and reflections upon the purpose of life (Oliver & Bartsch, 2010; Oliver & Raney, 2011), that provide a theoretical connection between the reception process and different facets of eudaimonic well-being. Owing to its strong theoretical correspondence with the well-being concept, the field of entertainment research can thus be considered a crucial point of origin of research on the interplay between media use and well-being.

The chapters in the Processes section of this volume discuss a broad spectrum of concepts that link media use to both hedonic and eudaimonic forms of well-being, and thus well represent the current developments in research on media entertainment and the reception process. Chapter 4, by Robin Nabi and Abby Prestin, lays the theoretical ground for a number of subsequent chapters by addressing the role of emotion as a basic theoretical link between media exposure and well-being. Their theoretical discussion suggests that the positive emotions elicited by media content can be a powerful source of hedonic well-being. This view is extended in Chapter 5, by Melissa Robinson and Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick, who discuss selective exposure to media content as a pathway to increased hedonic well-being through the optimization of mood and arousal. A connection between the entertainment experience and eudaimonic well-being is established in Chapter 6, by Anne Bartsch and Mary Beth Oliver. This chapter addresses the appreciation of sad and poignant media content as a source of feelings of meaningfulness and a trigger of cognitive reflection on moral virtues and the purpose of life. This notion of media content as a source of meaningfulness is picked up in Chapter 7, by Diana Rieger, who discusses media exposure as a form of coping with the fear of death. Chapter 8, by Leonard Reinecke and Allison Eden, discusses processes of recreation and self-regulation via media exposure and introduces the theoretical concept of recovery experience as an integrative approach that combines hedonic (distraction from stress, relaxation) as well as eudaimonic (building up new resources through mastery and control experiences) facets of well-being.

While the first five chapters in this section take a holistic view and connect media use and well-being through broader concepts such as emotions, homeostasis, self-regulation, or coping, the remaining chapters in this part of the volume focus on more specific variables within the reception process that act as mediators between media content and well-being. One crucial aspect in this context is the relationship and interaction between media users and media characters. Chapter 9, by Mike Slater and Jonathan Cohen, discusses identification with protagonists in narrative worlds and the resulting extension of the boundaries of the self as a potential source of psychological growth and well-being. In Chapter 10, Tilo Hartmann addresses parasocial inter...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Notes on Contributors
• Preface
• PART I Introduction: What Is Well-Being?
• 1 Media Use and Well-Being Status Quo and Open Questions
• 2 An Overview of Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-being Concepts
• 3 Time Well-Spent? Motivation for Entertainment Media and Its Eudaimonic Aspects Through the Lens of Self-Determination Theory
• PART II Processes: Psychological Mechanisms Connecting Media Use and Well-Being
• 4 The Tie that Binds Reflecting on Emotion's Role in the Relationship between Media Use and Subjective Well-Being
• 5 Mood Management Through Selective Media Use for Health and Well-Being
• 6 Appreciation of Meaningful Entertainment Experiences and Eudaimonic Well-Being
• 7 Meaning, Mortality Salience, and Media Use
• 8 Media Use and Recreation Media-Induced Recovery as a Link between Media Exposure and Well-Being
• 9 Identification, TEBOTS, and Vicarious Wisdom of Experience Narrative and the Self
• 10 Parasocial Interaction, Parasocial Relationships, and Well-Being
• 11 From Moral Corruption to Moral Management Media's Influence on People's Morality and Well-Being
• 12 Self-Efficacy Mediated Experiences and Expectations of Making a Difference
• 13 Taking the Good with the Bad Effects of Facebook Self-Presentation on Emotional Well-Being
• 14 Flow Experiences and Well-Being A Media Neuroscience Perspective
• PART III Moderators: Intervening Factors Determining the Risks and Benefits of Media Use
• 15 Personality, Media, and Well-Being
• 16 Of Sweet Temptations and Bitter Aftertaste Self-Control as a Moderator of the Effects of Media Use on Well-Being
• 17 Excessive and addictive use of the Internet Prevalence, Related Contents, Predictors, and Psychological Consequences
• 18 Digital Stress Permanent Connectedness and Multitasking
• 19 Media, Youth, and Well-Being What Are the Outcomes of Media Literacy Education?
• 20 The Role of Parents in Shaping the Influence of Media Exposure on Children's Well-Being
• 21 A Digital Path to Happiness? Applying Communication Privacy Management Theory to Mediated Interactions
• PART IV Contexts: Media Use and Well-Being in Different Spheres of Life
• 22 Political Well-Being and Media Use An Overview and a Look Ahead
• 23 Friends and Lifesavers How Social Capital and Social Support Received in Media Environments Contribute to Well-Being
• 24 Well-Being in the Context of Health Communication and Health Education
• 25 Media Use and Physical Fitness From Time Displacement to Exergaming
• 26 Media Use and Well-Being at the Work–Home Interface
• 27 Spirituality, Media, and Well-Being
• PART V Audiences: Media Use and Well-Being Over the Lifespan and in Different User Populations
• 28 Media Use and Youth Well-Being
• 29 Older Adults' Media Use and Well-Being Media as a Resource in the Process of Successful Aging
• 30 Gender Considerations of Media Content, Uses, and Impact on Well-Being
• 31 The Role of Media in the Well-Being of Racial and Ethnic Groups
• 32 LGBT Media Use and Sexual Identity
• 33 Cultural Differences in Media and Well-Being
• Index